Indus Valley Civilization
Major Cities
- Harappa
- Mohenjo-daro
- Lothal
- Kalibangan
Features
- Urban Planning
- Drainage System
- Granaries
- Citadel and Lower Town
Art & Culture
- Terracotta Figurines
- Seals
- Dancing Girl Statue
- Bead Making
Economy
- Agriculture
- Trade (Internal & External)
- Cotton Cultivation
- Dockyard at Lothal
Decline
- Climate Change
- Floods
- Decline in Trade
- Possible Aryan Invasion
Indus Valley Civilization: Major Cities & Significance
Harappa
- First discovered site (1921).
- Granaries and fortifications found.
- Evidence of cemeteries (burial practices).
Mohenjo-daro
- Great Bath (ritual bathing).
- Advanced drainage system.
- Granaries and Assembly Halls.
Lothal
- Famous Dockyard.
- Trade center (beads, gems, ornaments).
- Evidence of rice cultivation.
Kalibangan
- Pre-Harappan and Harappan phases.
- Evidence of ploughed agricultural field.
- Fire altars (suggest ritualistic practices).
Dholavira
- Unique water conservation system.
- Divided into Citadel, Middle Town, Lower Town.
- Large inscriptions in Harappan script found.
Indus Valley Civilization: Features & Significance
Urban Planning
- Grid pattern layout of cities.
- Wide roads, right-angle intersections.
- Division into Citadel (administrative) & Lower Town (residential).
Architecture
- Use of burnt bricks extensively.
- Public buildings: Granaries, Great Bath.
- Standardized residential houses with courtyards.
Drainage System
- Covered drains running along streets.
- Manholes at regular intervals.
- Highly advanced sanitation system.
Art & Craft
- Terracotta figurines (animals, humans).
- Bead-making, pottery, metallurgy (copper, bronze).
- Seals with intricate animal motifs.
Economy
- Agriculture (wheat, barley, cotton).
- Trade with Mesopotamia (Meluhha).
- Standardized weights and measures.
Script
- Undeciphered pictographic script.
- Short inscriptions on seals and pottery.
- Possible administrative or ritual use.
Religion
- Worship of Mother Goddess.
- Proto-Shiva (Pashupati Seal).
- Tree (Peepal) and animal worship.
Indus Valley Civilization: Art & Culture
Seals
- Steatite seals with animal motifs.
- Unicorn, humped bull common figures.
- Used for trade, identity, or religious purposes.
Terracotta Art
- Clay figurines of animals, humans.
- Mother Goddess figurines symbolizing fertility.
- Toys with movable limbs, carts.
Sculptures
- Bronze “Dancing Girl” of Mohenjo-Daro.
- Bearded Priest statue (Steatite).
- Evidence of advanced metallurgy and craftsmanship.
Pottery
- Red and black painted pottery.
- Geometric and animal motifs.
- Used both for daily and ceremonial purposes.
Bead Making & Ornaments
- Beads made of semi-precious stones (carnelian, lapis lazuli).
- Gold and silver ornaments.
- Advanced techniques of drilling and polishing.
Script & Inscriptions
- Pictographic script on seals, tablets.
- Yet to be deciphered.
- Indicates administrative sophistication.
Music & Instruments
- Evidence of string instruments (based on terracotta models).
- Dance depiction in Dancing Girl statue.
- Possible use of drums and other musical elements in rituals.
Indus Valley Civilization: Economy
Agriculture
- Main occupation: Wheat, barley, cotton cultivation.
- Use of plough, irrigation through wells and canals.
- Surplus production supporting urban life.
Animal Domestication
- Domesticated cattle, buffalo, sheep, goat.
- Limited evidence of horse domestication.
- Animals used for food, agriculture, trade.
Internal & External Trade
- Trade in cotton, beads, pottery, metals.
- Dockyard at Lothal for overseas trade.
- Evidence of trade with Mesopotamia (Sumerian texts mention Meluha).
Craft Production
- Skilled craftsmanship: pottery, bead-making, metallurgy.
- Specialized centers like Chanhudaro.
- Artisan class contributed to economy.
Foreign Relations
- Trade links with Persia, Afghanistan, Central Asia.
- Imported raw materials like lapis lazuli, copper.
- Exported beads, textiles, pottery.
Currency & Exchange
- No coinage system.
- Barter system mainly used.
- Seals possibly served as proof of ownership or trade authentication.
Indus Valley Civilization: Metallurgy
Copper
- Extensively used for tools, vessels, ornaments.
- Sources: Khetri mines (Rajasthan), Baluchistan.
Bronze
- Alloy of copper + tin.
- Used for statues (e.g., Dancing Girl), tools.
- Indicates advanced knowledge of alloy making.
Gold
- Found in jewelry: necklaces, bangles, earrings.
- Source likely Karnataka region (gold fields).
Silver
- Used for ornaments, vessels.
- More abundant than gold.
- Source: Afghanistan and western India.
Stone Tools
- Continuity of stone tools like microliths.
- Use of semi-precious stones for beads: Carnelian, Lapis Lazuli, Jasper.
Metal Tools
- Axes, chisels, fish-hooks, knives made of copper/bronze.
- Weapons were rare — suggests a peaceful society.
Significance
- Advanced metallurgy = Technological sophistication.
- Boosted trade (exports of crafted goods).
- Helped in urbanization and cultural prosperity.
Indus Valley Civilization: External Trade
Trade with Mesopotamia
- Known as “Meluha” in Sumerian records.
- Exported: Cotton textiles, beads, ivory, pottery.
- Imported: Silver, lapis lazuli, wool.
Trade with Persia (Iran)
- Overland routes via Baluchistan.
- Exchange of precious stones, metals.
- Influence seen in some art motifs.
Trade with Afghanistan
- Import of Lapis Lazuli (blue stone).
- Gold from Badakhshan region.
- Key mineral supplier to IVC craftsmen.
Trade with Oman Peninsula
- Marine trade through Lothal port.
- Exported goods: Beads, pottery.
- Imported copper ingots (Magan).
Major Exports
- Beads, ivory, pottery, cotton fabrics.
- Gold and silver ornaments.
- Shell and semi-precious stone products.
Major Imports
- Raw materials: Tin, copper, silver, lapis lazuli.
- Luxury goods: Woolen textiles, silver items.
Significance
- IVC was globally connected — early globalization!
- Boosted craft industries and urban economy.
- Enhanced cultural exchanges and prosperity.
Decline of Indus Valley Civilization
Timeline
- c. 1900 BCE – Start of decline.
- c. 1800 BCE – Urban centers begin to collapse.
- c. 1700 BCE – Regional cultures replace urbanism.
- c. 1500 BCE – Complete end of urban civilization.
Climate Change
- Weakening monsoon patterns.
- Increased aridity (desertification).
- River Saraswati (Ghaggar-Hakra) dried up.
- Agricultural collapse, famine-like situation.
Frequent Floods
- Layers of silt found in Mohenjodaro excavations.
- Destruction of housing and city planning.
- Forced mass migrations from cities.
Tectonic Activity
- Earthquakes altered river courses (Indus, Saraswati).
- Disrupted irrigation and agriculture.
- Isolated urban centers from trade routes.
Aryan Invasion Theory
- Proposed by early historians (e.g., Mortimer Wheeler).
- Suggested violent destruction by invading Aryans.
- Now largely dismissed – lack of strong archaeological proof.
- Gradual internal decline more accepted today.
Economic Decline
- Collapse of long-distance trade (Mesopotamia, Oman).
- Disruption in craft production and specialization.
- Urban economies could not sustain themselves.
Political Instability
- No evidence of strong centralized rulers.
- Possible local rebellions or power struggles.
- Fragmentation into smaller, rural communities.
Cultural Decline
- Decline of uniformity in weights, seals, script.
- Loss of sophisticated town planning traditions.
- No continuity of writing system after decline.
Overall Significance
- Multifactorial decline – not a single cause.
- Environmental factors primary contributors.
- Urban collapse important lesson for civilization studies.
- Contributed to early Vedic culture development later.