Author: Pravin Babu R

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lefl105.pdf

Indian contribution to the impact of world war i Upsc Notes

Military and Manpower Contributions

Troop Recruitment from Rural Areas: The colonial government pressured villages across India to supply soldiers for the British war effort, causing widespread rural anger over forced recruitment.
Overseas Deployment: Millions of Indian troops were transported on large ships and trains to fight on distant battlefronts abroad in Europe, Asia, and Africa.
Global Political Awakening of Soldiers: Many Indian soldiers returned from overseas deployment with direct awareness of how imperialist powers exploited Asian and African peoples, inspiring a strong resolve to challenge and oppose colonial rule at home.

Economic and Industrial Production Contributions

Supplying Military Requisites: With British factories preoccupied with war production, Indian industries were called upon to directly manufacture and supply wartime necessities, including jute bags, cloth for army uniforms, military tents, leather boots, and horse and mule saddles.
Industrial Expansion and Multi-Shift Operations: To fulfill war orders, existing Indian mills operated multiple shifts, new factories were built, working hours were extended, and large numbers of industrial laborers were hired.
Filling the Import Void: A sharp decline in foreign imports (particularly Manchester cotton goods) allowed Indian textile mills and handlooms to take over the domestic market, doubling Indian cotton piece-goods production between 1900 and 1912 and booming further through the war years.
Rise of Indian Business Groups: Indian merchants and industrialists reaped substantial profits from wartime supply contracts and market expansion, positioning them to organize business associations (such as the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress in 1920 and FICCI in 1927) and demand greater opportunities and protective economic policies.

Domestic Sacrifices and Socio-Economic Disruption

Financing Colonial War Expenditure: The Government of India’s defence expenditure surged dramatically, which was financed through war loans and an increased fiscal burden on Indians—including higher customs duties and the imposition of taxes on individual incomes and business profits.
Severe Inflation: Diverting supplies to the war front resulted in steep price inflation across India, with prices doubling between 1913 and 1918 and creating severe hardship for the general population.
Famine and Epidemic Toll: Towards the end of the war period (1918–19 and 1920–21), severe crop failures struck multiple provinces, causing acute food scarcity; combined with the 1918 influenza epidemic, an estimated 12 to 13 million Indians died according to the 1921 Census.

Catalyst for National Political Movements

Dismantling British Industrial Dominance: Wartime industrial production permanently weakened Britain’s monopoly; after the war, Manchester was unable to recapture its pre-war dominance in the Indian market, solidifying the economic base of Indian entrepreneurs.
Transforming Resistance into a Mass Movement: The unfulfilled hopes of peacetime relief, coupled with wartime exploitation, economic distress, and forced recruitment, unified diverse classes—peasants, industrial workers, educated youth, and businessmen—transforming the anti-colonial movement after 1919 into a nationwide mass struggle under Mahatma Gandhi’s leadership.

Reference Ncert Document

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/jess303.pdf

Impact of World War I on India Upsc Ncert Notes

Fiscal and Economic Burden

Escalating Defence Expenditure: The war led to a massive increase in the defence expenditure of the colonial government, which was financed through war loans and higher taxes.
New and Increased Taxation: To generate revenue, customs duties were raised and an income tax was introduced across the country.
Price Inflation: During the war years, prices surged and doubled between 1913 and 1918, imposing extreme economic hardship on common people.
Famine and Epidemic Crises: At the close of the war period (1918–19 and 1920–21), acute food shortages struck many parts of India due to crop failures. This coincided with a devastating influenza epidemic; according to the 1921 census, 12 to 13 million people perished due to famines and the epidemic.

Social Discontent and Rural Coercion

Forced Recruitment: The colonial state pressured villages into providing soldiers for the British army. This system of forced recruitment created intense resentment and anger across rural areas.
Post-War Disillusionment: Widespread hardship persisted after the war ended, dashing popular expectations of economic and political relief.

Growth and Boom in Domestic Industries

Decline of Foreign Imports: Because British factories were preoccupied with producing war supplies for the army, imports of manufactured goods (such as Manchester textiles) into India dropped sharply.
Captive Home Market: Indian mills and factories suddenly gained access to a vast, open domestic market to supply without foreign competition.
Supplying Military Requirements: As the conflict prolonged, Indian industrial units were tasked with fulfilling war orders, including jute bags, cloth for military uniforms, tents, leather boots, and horse and mule saddles.
Expansion of Production: Indian industrial production experienced a boom; new factories were established, existing plants operated multiple shifts, extra workers were hired, and laborers worked longer hours.
Rising Business Profits: Indian merchants and industrialists accumulated substantial profits during the war years, establishing economic strength and forming business associations to push for tariff protection and commercial concessions.
Permanent Setback to British Manufactures: After the war, British industries (notably Manchester cotton mills) could not recapture their dominant pre-war position in the Indian market, enabling local industrialists to consolidate their hold.

Political Mobilisation and Nationalism

Broadening the Nationalist Base: The severe economic strain and unfulfilled wartime expectations helped transform the anti-colonial struggle, drawing in peasants, industrial workers, the urban middle classes, and business groups.
Emergence of New Modes of Agitation: Against the backdrop of post-war distress, Mahatma Gandhi launched nationwide mass mobilization—beginning with the Rowlatt Satyagraha in 1919 and culminating in the Non-Cooperation Movement in alliance with the Khilafat cause.

Reference Ncert Document

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/jess303.pdf

Revolutionary nationalism in india upsc Ncert Notes

Ideological Core and Objectives

Revolutionary nationalists rejected the slow pace and “politics of petitions and prayers” of moderate leaders, asserting that British rule could not be overthrown through non-violence alone.
They viewed the use of force, mass armed mobilization, and revolutionary violence as legitimate means to overthrow foreign rule, shake the colonial state, and secure complete independence (swaraj).
The movement aimed to combat British exploitation, replace monarchical/imperial governance with a democratic republic, and challenge both foreign masters and domestic exploiting classes through a revolution of workers and peasants.

Early Revolutionary Currents and Secret Societies (Late 19th to Early 20th Century)

Early Resistance in Maharashtra: Following resentment against harsh plague-control measures in Poona (1896–1897), the three Chapekar brothers assassinated the British Plague Commissioner of Poona and a military officer; they were subsequently captured and hanged.
Secret Societies:
- Anushilan Samiti (1902): Founded in Bengal to provide young men with moral, intellectual, and physical training; coordinated by figures like Barindra Kumar Ghose with the guidance of Aurobindo Ghose.
- Abhinav Bharat: Established in Maharashtra under V.D. Savarkar, operating alongside secret revolutionary networks.
Revolutionary Press: Radical publications emerged, notably the Bengali newspaper Yugantar (run by Barindra Ghose’s group), openly preaching armed revolt and overthrow of the British.

Radicalisation during the Swadeshi Era and Targeted Attacks (1905–1912)

Muzaffarpur/Alipore Attempt (1908): Khudiram Bose (aged 18) and Prafulla Chaki threw bombs at a carriage to assassinate Douglas Kingsford, a British judge infamous for handing down severe sentences (floggings and long imprisonments) to Swadeshi activists. Two British women were killed; Chaki shot himself to avoid arrest, while Khudiram Bose was captured and hanged, becoming an iconic national martyr.
Alipore Bomb Trial (1908–1909): The colonial administration arrested Aurobindo Ghose, Barindra Ghose, and others. Defended by Chittaranjan Das, Aurobindo was acquitted, whereas Barindra and others received sentences of death or exile to the Andaman Cellular Jail.
Targeted Assassinations and Attacks:
- Ahmedabad (1909): Bombs were thrown at Viceroy Minto’s carriage during a procession (the attempt missed).
- Nashik (1909): Members of Abhinav Bharat—Anant Kanhere (aged 18), Krishnaji Karve, and Vinayak Deshpande—shot and killed the Nashik District Magistrate; all were subsequently hanged.
- Tirunelveli (1911): Vanchinathan shot dead a British district collector who had suppressed V.O. Chidambaram Pillai’s Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company.
- Delhi (1912): As Viceroy Lord Hardinge made his ceremonial entry into the new capital riding an elephant, a bomb was thrown at him; an umbrella bearer was killed and Hardinge was injured.

Transnational and Wartime Insurgency (1914–1918)

The Ghadar Movement (1914–1915): Organized by Indian migrants in North America (including Lala Hardayal and Sohan Singh Bhakna), this movement sought to exploit Britain’s preoccupation with World War I to ignite a pan-Indian mutiny within the British Indian Army. Leaders who returned to coordinate it included Rash Behari Bose, Sachin Sanyal, Kartar Singh Sarabha (executed at age 19), and Vishnu Ganesh Pingle.
The “German Plot” (1915): Anushilan Samiti leader Jatin Mukherjee (“Bagha Jatin”), collaborating with Rash Behari Bose, organized the reception of German arms and ammunition to trigger an armed uprising. After the plot was discovered by British intelligence, Jatin fought a 75-minute gun battle behind an anthill in the jungles of Balasore (Odisha) and died of his wounds.

The Inter-War Era: HRA and HSRA (1920s–1930s)

Hindustan Republican Association (HRA): Founded to pursue armed revolution, its members—including Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, and Chandrashekhar Azad—executed the Kakori Train Robbery (1925) near Lucknow to fund revolutionary operations; this triggered widespread arrests and executions of Bismil and Khan.
Formation of HSRA (1928): Reorganized as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (or Army) at Ferozeshah Kotla in Delhi by Chandrashekhar Azad, Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, Jatin Das, and Ajoy Ghosh, explicitly wedding armed struggle to a socialist vision where the laborer is the sustainer of society.
Saunders’ Assassination (December 1928): To avenge the death of Lala Lajpat Rai following a brutal police lathi charge, Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, and Shivaram Rajguru targeted the police officer responsible and assassinated John Saunders.
Central Legislative Assembly Bombing (April 1929): Bhagat Singh and Batukeswar Dutt (B.K. Dutt) threw two low-intensity, non-lethal bombs into the Central Legislative Assembly in Delhi alongside revolutionary leaflets. Their declared motive was not to kill, but “to make the deaf hear” and highlight colonial exploitation.
Martyrdom of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru: After enduring long prison hunger strikes against the mistreatment of Indian political prisoners, Bhagat Singh (aged 23), Sukhdev, and Rajguru were executed by hanging on 23 March 1931.

Armed Resistance by Women Revolutionaries (1930s)

Student Revolutionaries: Schoolgirls and young women actively participated in armed actions.
Comilla (1931): Two students, Suniti Chowdhury and Shanti Ghosh, assassinated a British District Magistrate.
Calcutta (1932): Bina Das, a student at Calcutta University, made a daring attempt on the life of the Governor of Bengal during a convocation ceremony to protest British subjugation; she was sentenced to nine years’ rigorous imprisonment.

Guerrilla Tribal Movements: The Gudem Hills Uprising (1922–1924)

In the Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh, Alluri Sitaram Raju led tribal peasants in an armed guerrilla movement against British forest laws and forced unpaid labor (begar).
Although inspired by Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement (promoting khadi and giving up alcohol), Raju asserted that India could be freed only through force, directing attacks on colonial police stations and British officials until his capture and execution in 1924.

Colonial Repression and the Symbol of Cellular Jail

British authorities responded to revolutionary actions with severe suppression, collective fines, executions without regular trials, and deportations.
The Cellular Jail (Kala Pani): Established in the Andaman Islands as a remote prison for solitary confinement, hard labor (such as extracting oil by hand), and psychological subjugation of revolutionaries like Barindra Ghose and V.D. Savarkar, becoming an enduring symbol of ultimate nationalist sacrifice.

Reference NCERT Documents

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/jess301.pdf

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lehs303.pdf

Swadeshi Movement UPSC NCERT notes

Origin and Immediate Trigger

The Swadeshi movement was sparked in 1905 by the British government’s decision under Viceroy Lord Curzon to partition the Bengal Presidency.
The official British justification was “administrative convenience”, but the real intent was to curb the political influence of Bengali politicians, weaken their solidarity, and divide Bengal along religious lines into a largely Muslim east and Hindu west.
The partition plan triggered widespread outrage across India, bringing together both Moderate and Radical factions of the Indian National Congress to oppose the measure.

Key Leaders and Geographical Spread

In Bengal, key leaders who united people across communities included Surendranath Banerjee, Rabindranath Tagore, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Ashwini Kumar Dutt.
The movement fostered the prominence of the “Lal-Bal-Pal” trio—Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab), Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra), and Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal)—who gave the struggle a pan-Indian character.
While Bengal was the epicentre, the movement echoed across India; notably, in deltaic Andhra, it became known as the Vandemataram Movement.
The Swadeshi movement of 1905–07 significantly broadened the appeal of the Indian National Congress among the middle classes.

Core Methods of Protest and Mass Action

Boycott of Foreign Goods: Mass bonfires of imported cloth, sugar, and other British goods were lit in public streets to decrease economic dependence on British manufactures.
Boycott of British Institutions: Protestors extended the boycott to government schools, colleges, and colonial law courts.
Promotion of Swadeshi Enterprise: Wearing clothing made from fabric spun and woven in India became a badge of self-reliance and national pride.
Precedents and New Enterprises: The movement built on earlier self-reliance ventures and inspired further domestic entrepreneurship:
- Jamsetji Tata’s Swadeshi Mills (Bombay, 1886).
- Punjab National Bank (Lahore, 1895), established exclusively with Indian capital by leaders including Lala Lajpat Rai.
- Bengal Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (1901), founded by chemist Prafulla Chandra Ray.
National Education: To combat the denationalising impact of British education, leaders launched the National Council of Education and established the Bengal National College in 1906, with Aurobindo Ghose serving as its first principal.

Cultural and Symbolic Expressions

Vande Mataram as a Rallying Cry: Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s song Vande Mataram (originally composed in 1875 and later featured in his novel Anandamath) became the mantra and anthem of the movement, prompting the colonial administration to ban its public singing.
Raksha Bandhan for Communal Solidarity: Protesters tied rakhis on each other’s wrists as a symbol of unity—especially between Hindus and Muslims—to counter the colonial strategy of division.
Visual Symbols of Bharat Mata:
- Abanindranath Tagore painted his iconic image of Bharat Mata in 1905, portraying the nation as an ascetic, spiritual, calm, and composed mother figure dispensing learning, food, and clothing.
- The personification of India as “Mother India” became a central theme in nationalist speeches, poems, and writings, such as Subramania Bharati’s poems and his magazine Vijaya in Madras, as well as Lala Lajpat Rai’s publication Vande Mataram in Punjab.
Swadeshi Tricolour Flag: A tricolour flag in red, green, and yellow was designed in Bengal during the movement, featuring eight lotuses representing the eight British Indian provinces and a crescent moon representing Hindus and Muslims.
Revival of Folklore: Nationalist leaders gathered folklore, ballads, and legends to instill national pride; in Bengal, Rabindranath Tagore personally collected folk tales, rhymes, and myths to lead a folk-revival movement.

Political Shift and Radicalisation

Critique of Moderates: Radical leaders criticized the Moderates’ traditional “politics of prayers” and petitions, asserting that self-reliance, constructive action, and mass mobilization were essential to attain swaraj (self-rule).
The Bande Mataram Daily: In 1906, Bipin Chandra Pal launched the English daily Bande Mataram, soon edited by Aurobindo Ghose, which articulated a “doctrine of passive resistance” and declared that nothing short of absolute national autonomy would satisfy the movement.
Calcutta Session (1906): Under the presidency of Dadabhai Naoroji, the Indian National Congress formally endorsed the fourfold programme of Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott, and National Education.
1907 Surat Split: Conflicts over the Swadeshi agenda—especially the use of boycott and the demand for full Swaraj versus administrative concessions—led to a split between the Moderates and the Nationalists/Radicals at the Surat Congress session.
Emergence of Revolutionary Groups: The anti-partition agitation radicalised youth, spurring revolutionary activities and secret societies such as the Anushilan Samiti (1902) in Bengal, revolutionary publications like Yugantar, and attempts on oppressive British officials (such as the 1908 attempt by Khudiram Bose and Prafulla Chaki on Judge Kingsford).

Outcomes

Annulment of Partition (1911): Due to unrelenting mass resistance and boycott, the British government eventually withdrew and annulled the partition of Bengal in 1911.
Capital Relocation: Alongside the annulment in 1911, the imperial capital was shifted from Calcutta to Delhi.

Reference Ncert Documents

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lehs303.pdf

Partition of Bengal (1905) Upsc Ncert Notes

Context and Territorial Scope

In the early 20th century, Bengal was the largest province of British India, encompassing areas extending to present-day Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, and Assam.
Viceroy Lord George Curzon floated the plan and announced the partition of Bengal in 1905.

Administrative Rationale vs. Underlying Motives

Official Rationale: The British government officially justified the division on grounds of “administrative convenience” and putting in place a more efficient administration.
Commercial and Official Interests: The administrative rationale was closely linked to the practical interests of British officials and businessmen.
Divide and Rule Policy: Rather than separating non-Bengali areas (such as Bihar or parts of Odisha), the government partitioned East Bengal and merged it with Assam.
Political Objectives: The primary motives were to curb the growing influence of Bengali politicians, weaken their solidarity, and divide the population by separating Bengal’s largely Muslim eastern section from its largely Hindu western section.

Immediate Reactions and Community Impact

Nationwide Outrage: The decision infuriated people across India and was seen as a deliberate attack on Bengali identity and cultural coexistence.
Unification of Congress Factions: Both the Moderates and the Radicals within the Indian National Congress stood firmly united against the partition.
Leaders at the Forefront: Prominent figures leading the opposition included Rabindranath Tagore, Surendranath Banerjee, Bipin Chandra Pal, and Ashwini Kumar Dutt.
Communal Divergence: While Hindus and Muslims had historically lived in peace in Bengal, the move eventually sharpened communal divides. Several Muslim leaders came to support the partition following British promises of separate administrative posts and regional development in East Bengal, leading to the establishment of the All-India Muslim League at Dacca in 1906.

Mass Protests and Symbols of Resistance

Public Mobilisation: Vast public meetings, demonstrations, student rallies, and processions multiplied across Calcutta and other towns.
Raksha Bandhan as a Symbol of Unity: To resist British division and signify communal brotherhood, people tied rakhis on each other’s wrists.
Patriotic Anthems: Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay’s song Vande Mataram (originally composed in 1875) became the rallying cry and mantra of the 1905 movement, leading the British administration to ban its singing in public streets.

The Swadeshi and Boycott Movements

Economic Resistance: The anti-partition agitation directly sparked the twin programmes of Swadeshi (“of one’s own country”) and Boycott.
Boycott of Foreign Goods: Mass bonfires of imported cloth and British commodities (like foreign sugar) were lit in streets to reduce reliance on British manufactures.
Promotion of Indigenous Enterprise: People embraced hand-spun, domestic fabrics as symbols of national pride. The momentum strengthened indigenous industry, building on enterprises like Jamsetji Tata’s Swadeshi Mills (1886), the Punjab National Bank (1895), and Prafulla Chandra Ray, commonly called as P.C. Ray’s Bengal Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. (1901).
Boycott of British Institutions: The boycott was extended to colonial courts, schools, and government colleges, although alternative domestic infrastructure was initially inadequate.
Geographical Spread: While strongest in Bengal, the agitation spread across the subcontinent, such as in deltaic Andhra, where it was known as the Vandemataram Movement.

Rise of Radical Politics and National Education

Rise of the Radicals: Leaders such as the ‘Lal-Bal-Pal’ trio (Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal) openly challenged the Moderates’ “politics of petitions and prayers”. They advocated mass mobilisation, swaraj, and constructive self-reliance.
Advocacy for Swaraj: In 1906, Bipin Chandra Pal launched the daily Bande Mataram (later edited by Aurobindo Ghose), demanding absolute national autonomy. In December 1906, the Calcutta session of Congress adopted Swaraj, Swadeshi, Boycott, and National Education as official goals.
National Council of Education: To counteract the denationalising impact of British schooling, the National Council of Education and the Bengal National College were established in 1906, with Aurobindo Ghose serving as its first principal.
Emergence of Revolutionary Action: Discontent led to the formation of revolutionary societies such as the Anushilan Samiti (1902) in Bengal, with publications like Yugantar and figures like Barindra Kumar Ghose, Khudiram Bose, and Prafulla Chaki resorting to physical resistance and revolutionary violence.

Annulment of the Partition

Due to continuous, intense popular resistance and escalating mass agitation, the British colonial government was eventually compelled to withdraw and annul the partition of Bengal in 1911.
Alongside the annulment, the British transferred the imperial capital of India from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911.

Reference Ncert Document