Early Trade Networks and Pre-Settlement Context

• Ancient Commercial Links: India traded extensively with the Mediterranean world (Greeks and Romans) over two millennia ago, supplying spices, cotton, ivory, gems, sandalwood, teakwood, and wootz steel. Oceanic trade had thrived for centuries, with the Indian subcontinent serving as a crucial focal point in the Indian Ocean trading networks.
• Pre-Colonial Economic Strength: Prior to the 16th century, India was a manufacturing and cultural powerhouse, producing at least one-fourth of the world’s GDP alongside China. European visitors and merchants consistently noted India’s agricultural diversity, manufacturing prowess, and prosperous trade networks.
• Commodities Driving European Interest: European trading enterprises sought Indian textiles (cotton, fine muslins, silk, brocades, satin) and spices (pepper, cloves, cardamom, and cinnamon), which commanded massive demand and lucrative markets in Europe.

Portuguese Settlements and Dominance

• Arrival at Calicut: The Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama reached Kappad (near Calicut / Kozhikode in Kerala) in May 1498, discovering the ocean route around the Cape of Good Hope and opening the way for European settlement in India.
• Headquarters at Goa: In 1510, the Portuguese captured the strategic port of Goa, which became the administrative capital of their Indian colony.
• Coastal Settlements: The Portuguese built trading posts and forts along both the Malabar coast and the Coromandel coast.
• The Cartaz System: The Portuguese established maritime dominance across the Arabian Sea through the cartaz (pass) system; ships navigating without these purchased permits were intercepted and seized, enabling a century-long Portuguese monopoly over the India–Europe spice trade.
• Religious Establishments and Repression:
  • In 1560, the Portuguese set up the Inquisition in Goa (which operated until it was abolished in 1812).
  • It subjected Hindus, Muslims, Jews, and converted Christians to severe persecution, forced conversions, and the widespread destruction of Hindu temples.
• Local Resistance:
  • When the Portuguese repeatedly attempted to capture the port town of Ullal in southern Karnataka during the late 16th century, Queen Rani Abbakka I forged regional alliances to thwart them before eventually being captured and dying in prison.
  • Her successor, Rani Abbakka II, attacked Portuguese naval vessels using fireballs crafted from coconut shells.

Dutch Settlements and Operations

• Arrival and Primary Focus: Dutch traders arrived in the Indian Ocean during the early 17th century, prioritizing commercial spice trade over religious proselytization.
• Trading Posts and Factories: The Dutch East India Company established outposts and factories across India’s coastline:
  • Western Coast: Surat, Bharuch, and Cochin (Kochi).
  • Eastern Coast: Nagapattinam and Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam).
• Displacement of Rivals and Stronghold: The Dutch established their main presence along the Malabar region of Kerala, where they expelled and displaced the Portuguese from several trading strongholds.
• Decline at Colachel: Dutch ambitions suffered a decisive setback at the Battle of Colachel in 1741, where the armed forces of Travancore under King Marthanda Varma defeated the Dutch on land and sea—a rare instance of an Asian power defeating a European colonial army.

French Settlements and Empire Ambitions

• Founding of Settlements:
  • French merchants established their first trading outpost at Surat in 1668.
  • In 1674, the French East India Company (Compagnie des Indes Orientales) set up a key settlement at Pondicherry (Puducherry).
• Colonial Tactics under Dupleix (1742–1754):
  • Governor-General Dupleix organized French ambitions to build a territorial empire in India.
  • He trained Indian soldiers in European military methods to create disciplined infantries known as sepoys.
  • He introduced indirect rule by backing puppet Indian princes during succession disputes.
• Urban Form and Religion:
  • Pondicherry was constructed with grid planning and strong defensive fortifications containing a sea-facing fort, batteries, and company installations.
  • Although the French generally refrained from interfering in local social and religious practices, Dupleix ordered the destruction of Pondicherry’s large Vedapurishwaran temple in 1748 at the urging of Jesuit priests and his wife to assert Christian dominance.
• Loss to the British: During the Carnatic Wars (1746–1763), despite initially capturing Madras in 1746, French power was dismantled by the British, leaving France confined to Pondicherry and a few minor enclaves for modest commerce.

English East India Company Settlements

• Royal Charter (1600): Queen Elizabeth I granted the East India Company a royal charter securing the exclusive English right to trade with the East, eliminating rivalry from other English companies and granting authority to maintain private arms.
• Early Coastal Footholds (1612–1690): The English East India Company established early coastal trading stations at Surat, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta, presenting themselves as mere merchants to avoid alerting local rulers:
  • Surat: Served as a primary English trading post and the premier hub of western Indian Ocean maritime trade during the 17th and early 18th centuries.
  • Madras: Established as a major fortified settlement and trading center on the Coromandel coast.
  • Bombay: Maintained as a key western trading base.
• Establishment and Growth in Bengal (Hugli and Calcutta):
  • Hugli Factory (1651): The Company established its first Bengal factory on the banks of the river Hugli, housing warehouse storage for export goods and administrative offices for its agents (“factors”).
  • Fortification: In 1696, the Company began constructing a fort around the Hugli settlement.
  • Zamindari over Three Villages (1698): The Company bribed Mughal officials to obtain zamindari rights over three villages, including Kalikata, which later expanded into the city of Calcutta.
  • Duty-Free Trade & Conflict: Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb issued a royal farman granting the Company the privilege of duty-free trade. Company officials misused this by running private trade without paying customs duties, causing massive revenue loss for Bengal and triggering conflict with Nawab Murshid Quli Khan.

Inter-Company Warfare and Fortification Dynamics

• Commercial Rivalry: Because the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and English all competed for the identical goods (cotton, silk, pepper, cloves, cinnamon, cardamom), purchase prices soared and profits dwindled.
• Armed Conflict and Enclosure: To secure trade monopolies and eliminate competitors, companies engaged in mutual warfare through the 17th and 18th centuries—sinking opposing vessels, blockading sea routes, moving trade goods under armed protection, and enclosing their settlements with heavy artillery and fortifications.
• Shift to Territorial Expansion: Fortifying settlements, building private armies, and meddling in local dynastic rivalries pulled European companies into Indian regional politics, transforming commercial trading posts into bases for territorial conquest.

Reference Ncert Notes

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lehs201.pdf

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/hess202.pdf

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/hees104.pdf

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/jess303.pdf

Context and Factors Drawing Europeans to India

• India’s Economic Pre-eminence:
  • Before European powers arrived, India was a vibrant economic and cultural powerhouse, contributing at least one-fourth of the world GDP alongside China.
  • European travellers described India as flourishing, noting its extensive internal and external trading networks, manufacturing prowess, and diverse agricultural output.
  • For centuries, the Indian Ocean had a bustling trade network where the Indian subcontinent was central to the movement of goods, people, customs, and knowledge.
• Commodities in High Demand:
  • European trading companies were attracted by Indian commodities such as fine qualities of cotton and silk, which enjoyed a massive market in Europe.
  • Spices—notably pepper, cloves, cardamom, and cinnamon—as well as indigo, ivory, sandalwood, teakwood, gems, and wootz steel were in great demand.
• Commercial Dynamics and Inter-Company Rivalry:
  • Because all European companies sought to purchase the same goods, intense competition pushed up purchase prices in India and squeezed profits.
  • The only way to survive and flourish was by eliminating rivals.
  • Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European companies engaged in fierce armed battles, sinking rival ships, blockading trade routes, and fortifying trading posts.
  • These efforts to fortify settlements and secure commercial dominance brought them into direct conflict with local Indian rulers, blurring the boundary between commerce and territorial politics.

The Portuguese: Discovery, Commerce, and Exploitation

• Arrival and Sea Route:
  • Portuguese navigator and explorer Vasco da Gama reached Kappad (near Calicut / Kozhikode in Kerala) in May 1498.
  • This discovered sea route—sailing down the western coast of Africa, around the Cape of Good Hope, and across the Indian Ocean—initiated the European colonial presence in India.
• Early Relations and Coercion:
  • Though initially received well, Vasco da Gama failed to foster friendly terms due to his aggressive conduct.
  • On his second voyage four years later, he bombarded Calicut from the sea and seized, tortured, and killed Indian merchants.
• Bases and Naval Dominance:
  • The Portuguese captured strategic ports and established bases, seizing Goa in 1510, which served as the capital of Portuguese India.
  • They set up trading outposts along both the Malabar and Coromandel coasts.
  • They enforced the cartaz (pass) system, requiring all ships navigating the Arabian Sea to buy Portuguese permits; vessels lacking a cartaz were confiscated.
  • This naval monopoly over the spice trade between India and Europe was maintained for nearly a century.
• Local Resistance:
  • In the late sixteenth century, the Portuguese repeatedly tried to capture the port town of Ullal (in southern Karnataka).
  • Rani Abbakka I formed strategic alliances with neighboring kingdoms and resisted their attempts, though she was eventually captured and died fighting in prison.
  • Her successor, Rani Abbakka II, set several Portuguese naval ships on fire using fireballs made of coconut shells.
• Religious Persecution:
  • In 1560, the Portuguese instituted the Goa Inquisition (which lasted until its abolition in 1812).
  • The Inquisition severely persecuted Hindus, Muslims, Jews, and Christian converts suspected of clinging to original beliefs, carrying out forced conversions and destroying many Hindu temples.

The Dutch: Commercial Focus and Displacement

• Arrival and Focus:
  • Arriving in the early seventeenth century, the Dutch focused primarily on commercial trade (especially spices) rather than religious conversion or extensive territorial control.
• Trading Posts:
  • The Dutch East India Company established trading posts across India:
    • West Coast: Surat, Bharuch, and Cochin (Kochi).
    • East Coast: Nagapattinam and Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam).
  • Their most notable presence was along the Malabar region of Kerala, where they displaced the Portuguese from multiple trading centers.
• Decline at the Battle of Colachel (1741):
  • Dutch presence in India was sharply curtailed after suffering defeat in the Battle of Colachel in 1741.
  • Forces of the Kingdom of Travancore under King Marthanda Varma decisively defeated the Dutch on land and sea, marking a rare historical event of an Asian power repelling a European colonial force.

The French: Compagnie des Indes Orientales

• Establishment:
  • Arriving later than the Portuguese and Dutch, French traders established their first trading outpost at Surat in 1668.
  • In 1674, they founded a major settlement and trading base at Pondicherry (Puducherry) under the Compagnie des Indes Orientales.
• Colonial Ambitions and Tactics under Dupleix:
  • Under Dupleix (Governor-General of French India from 1742 to 1754), the French developed plans for an empire in India.
  • Dupleix pioneered methods later copied by the British, including:
    • Training Indian soldiers in European military techniques to form disciplined infantry called sepoys.
    • Establishing indirect rule through puppet rulers installed by intervening in local dynastic succession disputes.
• The Carnatic Wars (1746–1763):
  • A series of conflicts broke out between the British and French in India.
  • Although Dupleix initially captured Madras in 1746, the French were steadily overcome by the British.
  • French possessions were subsequently reduced to Pondicherry and a few minor enclaves, restricting them to modest trade.
• Religious Policy:
  • Unlike the Portuguese, the French rarely interfered in local religious life.
  • A notable exception occurred in 1748 when Dupleix ordered the destruction of Pondicherry’s large Vedapurishwaran temple following requests by Jesuit priests and his wife to assert Christian dominance.

The English East India Company: Foundation and Coastal Footholds

• Royal Charter (1600):
  • In 1600, the East India Company received a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth I, granting it the exclusive privilege among English merchants to trade with the East.
  • This eliminated competition from other English companies and empowered the Company to venture overseas, buy goods cheap, and sell them in Europe at higher prices.
  • The charter also gave the Company special powers, including raising a private army.
• Establishment of Coastal Outposts (1612–1690):
  • Operating initially under the guise of ordinary traders, Company merchants established coastal trading centers with minimal local resistance at Surat, Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta.
  • Indian rulers originally welcomed them as foreign trade had long been practiced.
• Expansion in Bengal:
  • First Factory: Established in 1651 on the banks of the river Hugli, housing offices and a warehouse for export goods where Company agents (called “factors”) operated.
  • Fortification: In 1696, the Company began fortifying its Hugli settlement.
  • Zamindari Rights: In 1698, the Company bribed Mughal officials to obtain zamindari rights over three villages, one of which was Kalikata (which developed into Calcutta / Kolkata).
  • Farman and Misuse: The Company persuaded Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb to issue a royal farman granting duty-free trade. Company officials carrying on private trade refused to pay duty, causing vast revenue losses for the government of Bengal and prompting objections from Nawab Murshid Quli Khan.

Transition from Trade to Political Dominance (The British)

• Rising Tensions with Bengal Nawabs:
  • After Aurangzeb died in 1707, strong regional rulers in Bengal (Murshid Quli Khan, Alivardi Khan, and Sirajuddaulah) resisted the Company’s demands.
  • The Nawabs stopped the Company from expanding fortifications, denied it the right to mint coins, demanded large tributes, and accused it of cheating revenues and writing disrespectful communications.
• The Battle of Plassey (1757):
  • When Sirajuddaulah captured the English factory at Kassimbazar and took the Company’s fort at Calcutta, British reinforcements were dispatched from Madras under Robert Clive.
  • Clive struck a secret deal with the Nawab’s military commander, Mir Jafar, promising him the throne in return for turning traitor on the battlefield.
  • At the Battle of Plassey (1757), Mir Jafar’s large wing of the army refused to fight, resulting in Clive’s victory.
  • This became the Company’s first major victory in India, transforming it from a trading entity into a kingmaker.
• Battle of Buxar (1764) and Assumption of the Diwani (1765):
  • Finding puppet rulers difficult to control (deposing Mir Jafar for Mir Qasim, then fighting and defeating Mir Qasim at Buxar in 1764), Clive proclaimed that the Company must become “nawabs ourselves”.
  • In 1765, the Mughal emperor granted the Company the Diwani (right to collect revenue) of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha.
  • Prior to this, the Company purchased Indian goods using imported British gold and silver; the Diwani ended this drain of bullion, allowing Indian land revenues to pay for Indian goods, military forces, and Company buildings.
• Technological Edge:
  • In the early nineteenth century, the development of steamships cut sea journey times from six to eight months down to three weeks, accelerating the influx of British personnel, officials, and families.
  • By 1857, the East India Company held direct territorial control over roughly 63 percent of the subcontinent’s land and 78 percent of its population, holding virtually the whole of India through direct or indirect dominance.

Reference Ncert Documents

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/hees104.pdf

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/hess202.pdf

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/jess303.pdf

Origins and Foundation

• Foundational Role of Rash Behari Bose: Years after escaping from India to Japan following revolutionary activities, Rash Behari Bose laid the foundation of the Indian National Army.
• Ideological Shift of Subhas Chandra Bose: Subhas Chandra Bose, a radical nationalist with socialist leanings and a former Congress leader, broke away from Mahatma Gandhi’s ideal and policy of non-violence (ahimsa), though he respected Gandhi as the “Father of the Nation”. Bose was convinced that India’s freedom would come only through armed struggle.
• Bose’s Journey to the Axis Powers:
  • Believing that raising an army within India was unrealistic, Bose decided to seek assistance from Britain’s enemies during World War II.
  • In January 1941, he secretly escaped house arrest from his Calcutta residence.
  • He journeyed through Afghanistan and Russia to reach Germany, where he spent almost two years seeking support from anti-British forces.
  • Concluding that he stood a better chance with Japan (Germany’s ally against Britain and most European nations), he travelled through Indonesia and Japan, arriving in Singapore.
• Formation and Reorganization in Singapore (1943):
  • In Singapore in 1943, Bose raised and reorganized the Indian National Army (also known as the Azad Hind Fauj).
  • The army was formed from Indian prisoners of war (POWs) and volunteers.
  • In 1943, Bose also proclaimed the formation of the provisional government of Azad Hind (“Free India”).

Military Campaigns and Operations

• Allied Offensives with Japan: As Japan expanded World War II into Southeast Asia, the INA fought alongside the Japanese army.
• The 1944 Invasion Campaign: In 1944, the INA launched campaigns to enter India and free it from British control, advancing through Burma into northeastern India, particularly targeting Imphal and Kohima in Manipur and Nagaland.
• Defeat: The northeast India campaigns failed; the INA was militarily defeated and could not establish a base inside India.

Reception, Trials, and Historical Impact

• Public Perception of Bose’s Strategy: While many within India admired Bose for his courageous defiance, others criticized his wartime alliance with Nazi Germany and Japan.
• Imprisonment and the INA Trials: Following the failure of the campaign, INA members were taken prisoner by the British and placed on trial.
• Mass Public Outrage: Across India, people from all walks of life rose up and participated in widespread protest movements against the INA trials.
• Erosion of British Authority: The 1946 INA trials, alongside the Royal Indian Navy Mutiny and the Cabinet Mission Plan, severely weakened British colonial authority in India.
• Role in Indian Independence: Historians recognize that the actions of the INA, the widespread public movements surrounding the trials, and the subsequent unrest in the armed forces demonstrated that Britain could no longer depend on the Indian military to maintain its empire, serving as a key factor in Britain’s eventual exit from India.

Background and Preceding Events Leading to the Movement

• Constructive Work and Groundwork (Mid-1920s): Following the withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement in February 1922, followers of Mahatma Gandhi undertook sincere social and constructive work across rural India (promoting khadi, spinning, and working against untouchability). This village-level work significantly broadened the support base that later proved vital for launching the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930.
• Economic Turmoil (Late 1920s): The impact of the worldwide economic depression caused agricultural prices to decline from 1926 and collapse entirely after 1930. Peasants across the countryside faced extreme distress as demand and exports dwindled, leaving them unable to sell their produce or pay government revenue demands.
• The Simon Commission (1927–28): In 1927, the British government appointed a Statutory Commission headed by Sir John Simon to examine the constitutional system in India and recommend reforms. Because it contained entirely British members and not a single Indian, it triggered universal outrage and widespread boycotts with black flags and the slogan “Simon Go Back!”. During a peaceful march against the commission in Lahore in October 1928, police brutally lathi-charged demonstrators, severely injuring Lala Lajpat Rai, who died two weeks later.
• The Dominion Status Controversy and Rise of Radicals: The 1928 report drafted under Motilal Nehru proposed “Dominion status” (internal self-government under the British Crown). In October 1929, Viceroy Lord Irwin made a vague offer of future dominion status and proposed a Round Table Conference. Younger radical leaders within the Congress, led by Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, rejected these half-measures and advocated for full independence, while moderate and liberal influence waned.
• The Lahore Resolution for Purna Swaraj (December 1929): Presided over by Jawaharlal Nehru, the Lahore Congress session formally adopted the goal of Purna Swaraj (complete independence).
  • The declaration asserted the inalienable right of the Indian people to freedom, to enjoy the fruits of their toil, and to alter or abolish an oppressive government that deprives them of these rights.
  • It declared that the British government had ruined India economically, politically, culturally, and spiritually, requiring India to sever all connection with Britain.
• Observance of Independence Day (26 January 1930): The Congress resolved that 26 January 1930 would be celebrated as Independence Day nationwide.
  • Gandhi issued precise instructions for the day: meetings across cities and villages were to be held at the exact same minute announced by the beating of drums, beginning with the hoisting of the national flag.
  • The rest of the day was to be devoted to constructive work (spinning, serving untouchables, promoting Hindu-Muslim unity, or prohibition work) and taking the solemn pledge for freedom.
  • However, the celebrations drew limited public enthusiasm, making Gandhi realize that the abstract ideal of freedom had to be linked to concrete grievances of everyday life.

The Salt Issue and Gandhi’s 11 Demands

• Selection of Salt as a Universal Symbol:
  • Under colonial law, the British state maintained a strict monopoly over the manufacture and sale of salt and imposed a heavy salt tax.
  • Salt was an indispensable daily food item consumed equally by the rich and the poor.
  • Gandhi called the tax “sinful” and characterized the salt monopoly as a “fourfold curse”: it deprived people of a simple village industry, led to wanton destruction of natural salt by government officers to prevent untaxed use, imposed an exorbitant tax (often over 1,000 percent of value), and squandered state funds on destroying what nature freely produced.
  • Targeting salt united every section of Indian society without creating friction between the rich and the poor.
• Ultimatum to Viceroy Lord Irwin (31 January 1930):
  • Gandhi sent an eleven-point demand letter to Viceroy Lord Irwin addressing issues affecting diverse segments, from peasants to industrialists.
  • Abolition of the salt tax formed the centerpiece of these demands.
  • The letter served as an ultimatum: if these demands were not met by 11 March 1930, the Congress would inaugurate a civil disobedience campaign. Irwin was unwilling to negotiate and failed to grasp the political weight of the impending action.

The Salt March to Dandi (March–April 1930)

• The Journey: On 12 March 1930, Mahatma Gandhi departed his Sabarmati Ashram on foot with 78 chosen volunteers. They covered over 240 miles (approx. 380 km) in 24 days (averaging about 10 miles a day) to reach the coastal village of Dandi in southern Gujarat.
• Speeches Along the Way: Massive gatherings welcomed Gandhi at every halt. Gandhi urged the public to defy colonial laws peacefully and called upon village officials to quit government employment (prompting widespread resignations). At the village of Wasna, he urged upper castes to realize that Swaraj was unattainable without serving and making amends to the untouchables, and maintaining unity among Hindus, Muslims, Parsis, and Sikhs.
• Breaking the Law (6 April 1930): Gandhi arrived at Dandi, addressed the gathering on 5 April stating that civil disobedience was based on the faith that a roused nation needed no single leader, and on the morning of 6 April 1930, he ceremonially picked up a fistful of natural salt from the seashore and boiled seawater, formally violating the salt law.

Course and Forms of Civil Disobedience (1930–31)

• Difference from Non-Cooperation: Unlike the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22), which emphasized refusing voluntary association and cooperation with the British, Civil Disobedience called upon people to actively break colonial laws alongside withholding cooperation.
• Nationwide Salt Defiance: Thousands across India manufactured illicit salt, boiled seawater, and staged peaceful demonstrations outside government salt depots and factories.
• Spread of Parallel Protest Methods:
  • Boycott of foreign goods and foreign textiles, with merchants refusing to import or finance foreign goods.
  • Picketing of liquor shops and foreign cloth establishments.
  • Refusal by peasants to pay land revenues and chaukidari taxes (notably in Bihar and Gujarat).
  • Resignation of local and village officials.
  • Defiance of forest regulations: forest and tribal communities entered “Reserved Forests” without permits to graze cattle and gather wood and fruit.
• Notable Local Incidents & Revolts:
  • Peshawar (23 April 1930): Following the arrest of Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (the leader of the Khudai Khidmatgars), huge unarmed crowds demonstrated in Qissa Khwani Bazaar facing armored cars and police gunfire, leaving many dead. In a famous act of defiance, two platoons of the Royal Garhwal Rifles led by Chandra Singh Garhwali refused orders to fire on their unarmed countrymen, courting arrest and imprisonment instead.
  • Sholapur (May 1930): Following Gandhi’s arrest, industrial workers attacked railway stations, courts, police outposts, and municipal offices—all symbols of colonial rule.
  • Other Centers: Defiance occurred widely in places such as Agra, Cawnpore, Benaras, Allahabad, Lucknow, Meerut, Rae Bareli, Midnapore, 24-Parganas, and Vizagapatam. In Jubbalpore, Seth Govinddas attempted the manufacture of chemical salt. Jawaharlal Nehru was arrested at Cheoki railway station on 14 April 1930 on his way to a Youth League meeting and sentenced to six months’ imprisonment in Naini Central Jail.

Social Groups and Their Participation

• Rich Peasants:
  • Communities such as the Patidars of Gujarat and the Jats of Uttar Pradesh were major commercial crop growers.
  • Severely impacted by the collapse in agricultural prices and loss of cash income, they found it impossible to pay colonial revenue demands.
  • They organized their communities and forced members into boycott programs, viewing Swaraj essentially as the fight against high land revenue.
  • When Gandhi called off the movement in 1931 without obtaining revenue revisions, they felt deeply disillusioned, leading many to refuse participation during the second phase in 1932.
• Poor Peasants and Small Tenants:
  • Cultivating rented lands, small tenants suffered as depression reduced their cash flow, making it impossible to pay rents to landlords.
  • They joined radical campaigns spearheaded by Socialists and Communists, demanding the remission of rent payments.
  • The Congress leadership, reluctant to antagonize rich peasants and landlords, refused to sponsor “no-rent” campaigns, creating enduring tension and ambiguity between poor peasants and the Congress.
• Business and Industrialist Classes:
  • Enriched during World War I, Indian businessmen sought protection against foreign imports and opposed restrictive colonial policies, demanding a favorable rupee-sterling foreign exchange ratio.
  • Having organized into bodies like the Indian Industrial and Commercial Congress (1920) and the Federation of the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industries (FICCI, 1927), prominent industrialists like G.D. Birla and Purshottamdas Thakurdas backed the 1930 movement with funds and by boycotting imported commodities.
  • They envisioned Swaraj as an unhindered economic space free from colonial trade constraints.
  • However, after the inconclusive Round Table Conference, they grew fearful of prolonged strikes, militant violence, and the growing socialist leanings among younger Congress leaders (like Nehru), leading to waning enthusiasm.
• Industrial Working Class:
  • Overall, factory laborers stayed largely aloof, particularly because of the visible closeness between Congress and wealthy industrialists.
  • A notable exception was the Nagpur region, where workers participated in strikes and rallies.
  • Pockets of resistance occurred: railway strikes in 1930, dockworkers’ strikes in 1932, and Chotanagpur tin miners wearing Gandhi caps in boycott rallies.
  • The Congress declined to integrate labor demands into its official agenda to avoid fracturing the anti-imperialist front.
• Women’s Mass Mobilization:
  • The Salt Satyagraha represented the first time women took part in nationalist politics in massive numbers.
  • Women from diverse backgrounds—urban high-caste families, rich rural households, liberal homes, and conservative households emerging directly from purdah (seclusion)—joined marches, manufactured salt, and picketed shops.
  • Notable leaders included Sarojini Naidu (who led marches and had to actively persuade Gandhi initially to allow women to participate) and socialist activist Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay (who urged Gandhi not to limit protests to men and courted arrest herself).
  • Exemplars like Ambabai of Karnataka (widowed at sixteen) threw herself into picketing liquor and cloth shops in Udipi, serving repeated jail sentences, teaching spinning, and organizing prabhat pheris.
  • Despite their active role, Gandhi and the Congress saw the domestic realm (as mothers and wives) as woman’s primary sphere and long hesitated to confer actual administrative positions on women within the party.

Limits and Internal Debates of the Movement

• Dalit (Depressed Classes) Participation:
  • Long neglected by the Congress to avoid antagonizing conservative high-caste Hindus (sanatanis), Dalits maintained limited participation, especially in strongholds like Maharashtra and Nagpur.
  • Under Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (who founded the Depressed Classes Association in 1930), Dalits demanded separate electorates and reserved legislative seats, arguing that social dignity and relief from caste oppression required political empowerment.
  • Gandhi opposed separate electorates, believing they would permanently segregate lower castes from mainstream Hindu society and perpetuate the stigma of untouchability.
• Muslim Participation and Communal Alienation:
  • Large sections of Muslims largely kept aloof from the Civil Disobedience Movement.
  • Following the collapse of the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance, mutual suspicion deepened as Congress appeared increasingly allied with Hindu religious groups like the Hindu Mahasabha.
  • Communal clashes and competing militant religious processions widened divisions during the late 1920s.
  • Compromise negotiations failed; in 1928, M.R. Jayakar of the Hindu Mahasabha opposed Jinnah’s compromise proposal (which offered to drop separate electorates in exchange for reserved seats in the Central Assembly and population-proportionate representation in Punjab and Bengal).
  • In his presidential address to the Muslim League at Allahabad in 1930, Sir Muhammad Iqbal defended separate electorates and proposed a separate autonomous territory for Muslims in northwestern India to protect Islamic identity, providing the intellectual rationale for future demands for Pakistan.

British Reaction and Repression (1930)

• Crackdown and Mass Incarceration: The colonial administration used widespread force: peaceful demonstrators were beaten with batons, women and children were assaulted, and around 60,000 to 100,000 satyagrahis were imprisoned, including Gandhi and other top leaders.
• Official Perception: Confidential fortnightly Home Department police reports dismissed the early Salt March as theatrical posturing and claimed the public was indifferent, yet records showed officials were gripped by deep anxiety over the political fallout of arresting Gandhi.
• International Impact: The movement garnered immense international press coverage, especially in American publications like Time magazine (which initially mocked Gandhi’s physical frame but soon praised him as an astute statesman and saint).

The Gandhi-Irwin Pact and the Round Table Conferences (1931)

• The Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931):
  • Seeking to defuse the agitation, Viceroy Irwin initiated direct talks with Gandhi (who had been released from prison in January 1931).
  • This was the first time the British administration sat with the Congress leadership on an equal footing.
  • Under the terms of the pact:
    • The Congress agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement.
    • The Congress agreed to participate in the Second Round Table Conference in London (having boycotted the first conference in November 1930).
    • The government agreed to release political prisoners not implicated in violence.
    • Private manufacture of salt for personal use was permitted along the coasts.
  • Radical and younger nationalists criticized the pact because Gandhi was unable to secure any concrete commitment to Purna Swaraj from the Viceroy.
• The Second Round Table Conference (Autumn 1931):
  • Gandhi travelled to London representing the Congress.
  • The conference ended in deadlock because Gandhi’s claim that the Congress spoke for the entirety of India was challenged by:
    1. The Muslim League (claiming sole representation of the Muslim minority).
    2. The Princely States (claiming Congress held no standing in their territories).
    3. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (asserting that the Congress failed to represent the lowest castes).
  • The British conceded Ambedkar’s demand for separate electorates for the Depressed Classes, prompting Gandhi’s fierce opposition.

Resumption, Relaunch, and Suspension (1932–1934)

• Resumption and Relaunch (1932):
  • Gandhi returned from London empty-handed to find the new Viceroy, Lord Willingdon (who held a deeply hostile view of Gandhi), enforcing an intense cycle of repression.
  • Jawaharlal Nehru and Abdul Ghaffar Khan had been jailed, the Congress had been outlawed, and prohibitions were clamped on public meetings, demonstrations, and boycotts.
  • Gandhi relaunched the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1932.
• The Poona Pact (September 1932):
  • In protest against the British grant of separate electorates to the Depressed Classes, Gandhi began a “fast unto death” in jail.
  • Ambedkar conceded to a compromise, known as the Poona Pact of September 1932.
  • Instead of separate electorates, the Depressed Classes received an increased share of reserved seats in provincial and central legislatures, elected by the general electorate.
• Loss of Momentum and Formal Withdrawal (1934):
  • The relaunched struggle was met with massive arrests and could not sustain the initial public fervor and enthusiasm.
  • Rich peasants and business groups largely stayed away.
  • Over 40,000 satyagrahis were jailed during this second phase (1931–34).
  • The movement gradually ran out of momentum and was formally withdrawn by Gandhi in 1934.

Aftermath and Significance

• Turn Toward Constitutional Politics: With the withdrawal of Civil Disobedience, the Congress pivoted toward constitutional agitation and legislative politics.
• Government of India Act of 1935: The prolonged nationalist pressure compelled the British to pass the Government of India Act of 1935, which introduced provincial autonomy and representative institutions.
• 1937 Elections: In the provincial elections of 1937, the Congress achieved a major electoral victory, forming ministries in 7 out of 11 provinces (with a Congress “Prime Minister” in eight provinces supervised by a British Governor).
• Realization of British Decline: The Civil Disobedience Movement demonstrated that the British could no longer rule India without challenge, compelling the colonial government to realize that its authority was fragile and that devolution of real power was inevitable.

Reference Ncert Documents

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/jess302.pdf

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lehs303.pdf

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/hess208.pdf

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/hees202.pdf

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lefl105.pdf

Introduction & Prelude to the Final Phase

• Provocation and Resignations: The outbreak of the Second World War and Britain’s decision to involve India without consulting provincial Congress ministries provoked the leaders of the Indian National Congress and Gandhi. The Congress ministers resigned in protest.
• Individual Satyagraha (October 1940): Gandhi launched Individual Satyagraha to keep up the morale of the Congress.
  • Unlike earlier mass campaigns, this strategy was chosen so the war against fascism was not hampered.
  • Satyagrahis were handpicked by Gandhi, and their demand was limited to asserting freedom of speech to preach against participating in the war.
  • Chosen satyagrahis informed the District Magistrate in advance of the date, time, and venue, publicly declared: “It is wrong to help the British War effort with men or money. The only worthy effort is to resist all war efforts with non-violent resistance,” and offered arrest.
  • It commenced on October 17, 1940, with Vinobha Bhave offering satyagraha near his Paunar ashram in Maharashtra.
  • Suspended in December 1940, revived in January 1941 with groups offering satyagrahas, and finally withdrawn in August 1941.
• August Offer (August 8, 1940): Viceroy Lord Linlithgow offered:
  • Dominion status at an unspecified future date.
  • Expansion of the Viceroy’s Executive Council to include more Indians.
  • Establishment of a War Advisory Council with Indians.
  • Recognition of minority rights.
  • A promise to recognize the right of Indian people to frame a constitution at some future date after the war.
  • Individual Satyagraha served as the Congress response to this offer, which came too late for negotiations.
• Developments within Congress & Subhas Chandra Bose:
  • Congress membership declined from 4.5 million in 1938–39 to 1.4 million in 1940–41.
  • Subhas Chandra Bose was elected Congress President, which upset Gandhi, leading to Bose’s resignation.
  • Isolated by top leaders refusing cooperation, Bose resigned, and the Calcutta AICC elected Rajendra Prasad as president.
  • Bose formed the Forward Bloc to operate within Congress but was removed from all official positions in August 1939.
  • Unlike other leaders who supported the British war effort due to the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, Japan) being fascist, Bose advocated non-cooperation with the Allies and active cooperation with the Axis powers.
• Lahore Resolution (March 23, 1940):
  • The Muslim League passed a resolution demanding separate units/states for Muslims in contiguous majority areas in Eastern and North-Western India.
  • Colonial administrators gave encouragement to this demand, providing them leverage to avoid negotiating with the Congress.

The Cripps Mission (1942)

• Background & Japanese Advances:
  • By 1941, Axis advances were severe; France, Poland, Belgium, Norway, and Holland had fallen.
  • Japan bombed Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941, and rapidly conquered the Philippines, Indo-China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Burma, arriving at India’s northeastern frontier.
  • British troops retreated, abandoning Indian soldiers of the British Indian Army as Prisoners of War (POWs).
  • Fearing the fall of Calcutta and Madras, and pressured by US President F.D. Roosevelt and Chinese President Chiang Kai-Shek, Prime Minister Winston Churchill dispatched Sir Stafford Cripps to India.
  • In December 1941, the Congress Working Committee offered war cooperation on the condition of an immediate substantial transfer of power and full independence after the war.
• Proposals of Cripps (March 1942):
  • A delegation led by Sir Stafford Cripps (a Labour member of the British War Cabinet) arrived in March 1942.
  • Offered Dominion Status and a post-war constitution-making body (partially elected by provincial assemblies and partly nominated by Princely States).
  • Provinces unwilling to accept the new constitution reserved the right to enter separate agreements with Britain (laying the groundwork for Pakistan).
• Rejection:
  • Rejected because Dominion Status fell short of full independence, Princely States’ members were nominated rather than elected, and it held the potential for partition.
  • Jawaharlal Nehru stated that reading the proposals left him “profoundly depressed”. Negotiations completely collapsed.

The Quit India Movement (1942)

• Factors Leading to the Struggle:
  • Breakdown of the Cripps Mission.
  • Severe economic distress: commodity prices rose sharply and food-grain shortages worsened.
  • Subhas Chandra Bose’s broadcasts from Germany over Azad Hind Radio in March 1942.
• Congress Wardha Meeting (July 14, 1942):
  • The Congress Working Committee resolved to launch a mass civil disobedience movement.
  • C. Rajaji and Bhulabhai Desai had reservations and resigned from the Working Committee; Nehru accepted the majority decision despite personal hesitations.
• “Do or Die” Call:
  • Gandhi demanded that the British “Leave India to God. If that is too much, then leave her to anarchy…”.
  • He gave the call to “Do or Die”, framing the campaign as a “fight to the finish”.
• Outbreak and First Phase (Urban Phase):
  • In the early morning of August 9, 1942, Gandhi and the entire Congress leadership were arrested.
  • Spontaneous hartals, strikes, and violent police clashes erupted nationwide.
  • Workers joined massive strikes: Tata Steel Plant at Jamshedpur shut for 13 days starting August 20, and Ahmedabad textile workers struck for over three months.
• Brutal Colonial Repression:
  • 57 military battalions were deployed to put down protests, and aircraft were used to strafe demonstrators.
  • Viceroy Linlithgow confessed to Churchill that it was “by far the most serious rebellion since 1857”.
• Second Phase (Rural & Guerrilla Warfare):
  • Spread into rural areas driven by peasant resentment over a 60-point surge in food-grain prices between April and August 1942.
  • Underground Socialist leaders who evaded arrest (Jayaprakash Narayan, Achyut Patwardhan, Asaf Ali, Yusuf Meherally, and Ram Manohar Lohia) organized youth into rural guerrilla groups.
  • Coordinated attacks targeted communications: telegraph lines severed, railway tracks damaged, post offices destroyed, and government buildings torched (especially in Eastern UP, Bihar, Maharashtra, and Bengal).
  • Parallel “National Governments”: Formed in liberated enclaves, notably the “Tamluk Jatiya Sarkar” in Midnapore district, Bengal (survived until September 1944), and another parallel government in Satara.
• Movement Statistics & Severity:
  • By late 1943: 91,836 people were arrested; 1,060 shot dead by police; 208 police outposts, 332 railway stations, and 945 post offices destroyed or badly damaged; and at least 205 policemen defected to the rebels.
  • Collective punitive fines were levied across whole villages.
  • Azamgarh District Collector R.H. Niblett was sacked for being too lenient and recorded in his diary that the colonial government used “white terror” and an “incendiary police” burning down villages.
• Clandestine Radio Broadcasts:
  • Bypassing press censorship, an underground radio transmitter operated out of Bombay, frequently shifting locations.
  • Usha Mehta was the central operator; broadcasts were received as far as Madras.
• Gandhi’s Fast & Release:
  • Gandhi began a 21-day fast in prison on February 10, 1943, revitalizing the movement.
  • Released on medical grounds on May 6, 1944.
  • He restarted the Constructive Programme, allowing Congress committees to resume public activities and bypass the ban.
  • Lord Archibald Wavell succeeded Linlithgow as Viceroy in October 1943 and initiated moves for fresh negotiations.

Subhas Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army (INA)

• Origins of the INA:
  • British Indian Army units abandoned as POWs in Malaya and Burma were organized by Mohan Singh (an officer of the British Indian Army in Malaya) with Japanese backing.
• (Further narrative covered in subsequent sections of the unit summarizes Bose taking charge of the INA in Singapore, the formation of the Provisional Government of Free India, the INA trials, and the 1946 Royal Indian Navy Revolt which accelerated the transfer of power and partition under the Mountbatten Plan).

Reference

12th History Samacheer: Unit 7: Last Phase of Indian National Movement