1. Background and Causes
- First World War Hardships (1914–1918):
- Created severe economic and political distress, including a massive increase in defense expenditure funded by war loans, increased taxes, higher customs duties, and the introduction of income tax.
- Prices doubled between 1913 and 1918, causing intense hardship.
- Food shortages arose due to widespread crop failures in 1918–19 and 1920–21, alongside an influenza epidemic, leading to the death of 12 to 13 million people (1921 census). Food exports during the war also depleted supplies.
- Forced recruitment of soldiers in rural areas caused deep anger. Returning soldiers brought awareness of imperialist exploitation worldwide and desired to oppose colonial rule.
- The Rowlatt Act (1919):
- Hurriedly passed by the Imperial Legislative Council despite unanimous opposition from Indian members.
- Enabled detention of political prisoners without trial for up to two years and curbed civil liberties.
- Sparked nationwide protests, hartals (April 6, 1919), strikes, and arrests.
- Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (13 April 1919):
- Brigadier-General Dyer ordered troops to fire upon an unarmed gathering in Amritsar, killing hundreds (over 400 according to official counts; over 1,000 per Indian estimates).
- The ensuing martial law, torture, public floggings, and “crawling orders” deeply scarred public trust and catalyzed nationwide outrage.
- Khilafat Agitation:
- After Ottoman Turkey’s defeat in WWI, harsh peace treaty terms threatened the powers of the Ottoman emperor/Sultan (the Khalifa), the spiritual head of the Islamic world.
- The Khilafat Committee was established in Bombay in March 1919. Leaders including the Ali brothers (Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali) and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad sought mass action.
- Demands included: the Khalifa retaining control over Muslim sacred places in the Ottoman empire; jazirat-ul-Arab (Arabia, Syria, Iraq, Palestine) remaining under Muslim sovereignty; and the Khalifa retaining sufficient territory to defend the Islamic faith.
2. Conceptualization and Adoption
- Premise of Non-Cooperation:
- In Hind Swaraj (1909), Mahatma Gandhi posited that the British Empire survived solely through Indian cooperation; if Indians refused to cooperate, British rule would collapse within a year, leading to Swaraj.
- Non-cooperation was conceived as “pure soul-force” / satyagraha, demanding intense self-discipline, peaceful denial, and non-violence.
- Hindu-Muslim Unity:
- Gandhi viewed coupling Non-Cooperation with Khilafat as an essential strategy to unite Hindus and Muslims against colonial rule and draw all communities into the nationalist fold.
- Congress Endorsement and Compromise:
- September 1920 (Calcutta Special Session): Gandhi convinced Congress leaders to launch non-cooperation in support of Khilafat as well as Swaraj.
- Internal Tussle: Reluctance surfaced among some members over boycotting the November 1920 council elections and fears that the movement could trigger violence.
- December 1920 (Nagpur Session): Following national tours by Gandhi and Shaukat Ali, a compromise was reached, and the Non-Cooperation programme was formally ratified.
- Planned Stages of the Movement:
- Surrender of government-awarded titles and honors.
- Boycott of civil services, the army, police, law courts, legislative councils, and government schools.
- Boycott of foreign goods.
- If the colonial regime responded with repression, a full civil disobedience campaign would follow.
3. Spread and Dimensions of the Movement
A. Towns and Urban Areas
- Educational and Legal Boycott:
- Thousands of students abandoned government-run schools and colleges.
- Headmasters and teachers resigned.
- Renowned lawyers—including Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, C. Rajagopalachari, and Asaf Ali—gave up their practices.
- Elections:
- Council elections were boycotted in most provinces, except in Madras where the Justice Party (representing non-Brahmans) contested to enter councils and gain political voice.
- Economic Boycott:
- Foreign cloth was discarded and burnt in public bonfires.
- Picketing of liquor shops and foreign cloth shops took place extensively.
- Foreign cloth imports were halved between 1920/1921 and 1922, dropping in value from Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore.
- Merchants refused to finance or trade in foreign goods, which boosted indigenous Indian textile mills and handlooms.
- Urban Slowdown:
- Khadi was far more expensive than British mill-made cloth, making prolonged boycott difficult for the poor.
- Alternative national educational institutions and Indian courts were slow to develop, leading students, teachers, and lawyers to slowly return to British institutions.
B. Working-Class Actions
- Strikes broke out in numerous cities; official data noted 396 strikes in 1921 alone, involving roughly 600,000 workers and causing seven million lost workdays.
C. Rebellion in the Countryside (Peasants & Tribals)
- Awadh (Peasant Uprising):
- Led by Baba Ramchandra (a sanyasi and former indentured labourer in Fiji) against oppressive talukdars and landlords demanding extortionate rents, cesses, and unpaid forced labour (begar).
- Demanded reduced revenue, elimination of begar, and social boycott through nai-dhobi bandhs organised by panchayats.
- Jawaharlal Nehru toured the region in June 1920; the Oudh Kisan Sabha was founded in October 1920, establishing over 300 branches within a month.
- Under the banner of the movement in 1921, peasant action often turned violent—looting bazaars, raiding talukdar homes, and seizing grain supplies. Rumours circulated that Gandhi had promised no taxes and land redistribution.
- On 6 January 1921, police fired on peasants near Rae Bareli.
- Gudem Hills of Andhra Pradesh (Tribal Guerrilla Warfare):
- Caused by colonial closures of large forest tracts (depriving locals of grazing rights, firewood, and fruits) and the imposition of forced begar for road construction.
- Led by Alluri Sitaram Raju, who claimed special healing and bullet-proof powers and was regarded as an incarnation of God.
- Raju praised Gandhi, adopted khadi, and campaigned against alcohol, but insisted liberation required armed force rather than non-violence.
- Guerrillas attacked police stations, attempted to kill British officials, and waged armed rebellion until Raju was captured and executed in 1924.
- Kheda (Gujarat):
- Patidar peasants led non-violent campaigns refusing high British land revenue demands.
- Guntur (Andhra Pradesh):
- Peasants and tribals conducted “forest satyagrahas”, sending cattle into closed reserves without paying grazing fees.
- Kumaun:
- Peasants refused to carry loads or luggage for colonial administrators.
- Assam (Plantation Workers):
- Plantation laborers faced strict restrictions under the Inland Emigration Act of 1859, which prevented them from leaving tea estates without permission.
- Interpreting Swaraj as freedom to return home and acquire land in their native villages, thousands deserted plantations, shouting “Gandhi Maharaj ki Jai”.
- Stranded by railway and steamer strikes, many were caught and brutally beaten by police.
- Punjab (Akali Agitation):
- A Sikh movement aimed at expelling corrupt, government-backed mahants from gurdwaras aligned closely with the Non-Cooperation Movement.
- Sind:
- Muslim peasants and merchants enthusiastically backed the Khilafat and Non-Cooperation call.
4. Popular Perception of Mahatma Gandhi
- Gandhi was regarded by peasants as a messiah, “sadhu”, “deota”, or “Gandhi Maharaj” who would end taxes, abolish forest laws, prevent evictions (bedakhli), and bring about “Gandhi Raj”.
- Rumours attributed supernatural and miraculous powers to him, including miraculous occurrences (e.g., sugarcane pans cracking, crops transmuting) and misfortunes befalling opponents.
- Gandhi’s ascetic lifestyle, simple dress (adopting a simple dhoti/loincloth during his 1921 South India tour), use of the spinning wheel (charkha), and speaking in regional tongues established an unprecedented mass bond across classes.
5. Organizational Expansion & Dissent
- Mass Organizing: Congress set up Praja Mandals in princely states, created Provincial Congress Committees based on linguistic regions rather than colonial borders, and encouraged mother-tongue communication.
- Dissent and Opposition:
- Some Congress members opposed linking the Khilafat issue to Indian nationalism, viewing the Turkish Caliph as external.
- Mohammad Ali Jinnah warned against combining religion with politics and resigned from the Congress at the 1920 session.
6. Chauri Chaura and Suspension
- Incident (February 1922):
- At Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur district, United Provinces, a peaceful demonstration in a bazaar was fired upon by police.
- In retaliation, the crowd attacked and set fire to the local police station, killing 22 policemen (several constables).
- Withdrawal:
- Viewing the incident as inhuman and maintaining that satyagrahis were not yet adequately trained for non-violent mass struggle, Gandhi abruptly halted the entire movement.
- The sudden suspension caused deep dismay and disapproval among prominent leaders, including Jawaharlal Nehru, Motilal Nehru, Chittaranjan Das, and Subhas Chandra Bose.
7. Immediate Aftermath
- Repression and Gandhi’s Trial:
- Over 40,000 participants were imprisoned during the course of the movement.
- Gandhi was arrested in March 1922 and charged with sedition.
- Judge C.N. Broomfield sentenced Gandhi to six years’ imprisonment, while praising his high ideals and patriotism. (Gandhi was released early in February 1924).
- Split in Strategy (The Swarajists):
- C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru advocated entering legislative councils to disrupt colonial policies from within, leading to the formation of the Swaraj Party.
- Younger leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose pressed for full independence and more radical mass struggle.
- Dedicated Gandhians refocused on constructive rural work (khadi promotion, self-reliance, and the eradication of untouchability), which laid the foundation for the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930.
- Fade of Khilafat:
- Mustafa Kemal abolished the Turkish Sultanate in 1922 and the Caliphate in 1924, ending the Khilafat campaign.
Reference Ncert Documents
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/jess302.pdf
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/hess208.pdf
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/lehs303.pdf
https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/hees202.pdf
