Cyclone disaster management is most important, as cyclone affects coastal India maximum than any other. India has a coastline of about 7516 km and it is exposed to 10% of the world’s tropical cyclones.
In India, ten states are vulnerable to flood-prone. They are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and West Bengal. The islands of Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep are also prone to cyclones.
Flood Prone Districts in Tamil Nadu
Districts in Tamil Nadu which are frequently affected by cyclones: All the 13 coastal districts of Tamil Nadu are affected by cyclonic storms that occur during May- June and in the October-November months.
These Districts are Tiruvallur, Chennai, Kancheepuram, Villupuram, Cuddalore, Nagapattinam, Tiruvarur, Thanjavur, Pudukkottai, Ramanathapuram, Tuticorin, Tirunelveli, and Kanniyakumari.
On average, about five or six tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian sea and hit the coast every year. Out of these, two or three are severe. When a cyclone approaches the coast, a risk of serious loss or damage occurs from severe winds, heavy rainfall, storm surges, and river floods.
The effect of a storm surge is most pronounced in wide and shallow bays exposed to cyclones such as in the northern part of the Bay of Bengal.
Most cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal followed by those in the Arabian Sea and the ratio is approximately 4:1. During the cyclonic of cyclonic storms, wind speed is between 65 km/h and117 km/h.
Rules of action before a cyclone
Go to high-lying places from low-lying areas
Those residing in old buildings should temporarily relocate to safer buildings; Jewels and documents should be kept in safe custody.
Battery-operated radio, plastic torchlight, lamp, kerosene, match-box should be kept safely for future use.
Keep in ready all the first-aid kits and material available with you.
Keep in stock foodstuffs, material, fuel, drinking water, and life-saving drugs needed for the next week.
It is also important to take cattle and other pets to safer places and also it is important to know that if we see quickly approaching storm clouds it is possible to predict strong winds several minutes in advance.
Population pyramids are graphical representations of the age and sex of a population. Due to this reason, it is also referred to as age-sex pyramids.
These graphs are usually shaped like triangles and population pyramids also take other shapes.
Population pyramids usually have males on the left side and females on the right side. There is also a vertical line in the middle of the graph that separates the males from the females.
Literacy Rate
The total number of literate persons in a given age group is expressed as a percentage of the total population in that age group. Literacy rates continue to rise from one generation to the next.
Yet according to new data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, there are still 750 million illiterate adults, two-thirds of whom are women.
These numbers are a stark reminder of the work ahead to meet Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 4 and 5 and the Education 2030 targets.
Age – Sex pyramids
There are three types of Age – Sex pyramids: expansive, constrictive, and stationary. Expansive Age – Sex pyramids depict populations that have a larger percentage of people in younger age groups.
Populations with this shape usually have high fertility rates with lower life expectancies. Many third-world countries have expansive age-sex pyramids.
Such a population pyramid is a characteristic of newly developing countries such as Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Kenya, and some countries of Latin America.
Constrictive Age – Sex pyramids are named so because they are constricted at the bottom. There is a lower percentage of younger people.
Constrictive Age – Sex pyramids show declining birth rates since each succeeding age group is getting smaller and smaller. The
The United States has a constrictive Age – Sex pyramid.
Stationary population pyramid
Stationary population pyramids are used to describe the population that is not growing. This pyramid looks like a rectangular shape, as it shows equal percentages across ages.
The stationary oldest-old population is shaped by a constant number of persons annually reaching age 80 and then being subject to constant mortality.
Austria has a stationary population pyramid.
Sex Pyramids
Sex pyramids are those that show a somewhat equal proportion of the population in each age group. There is not a decrease or increase in population; it is stable.
Austria has a stationary Age – Sex pyramid.
The Purpose of the Age – Sex Pyramid The purpose of making this Age – Sex pyramid is to find out the comparison between the number of men and women, the number of workers, and the structure of the population in a country quickly.
In addition, the creation of the Age – Sex Pyramid also has a purpose to assist the government in taking development policies.
Country the loses most Population
Syria’s population is on a decline rate that is far ahead of all other nations.
The total number of literate people in a given age group is expressed as a percentage of the total population in that age group.
Literacy rates continue to rise from one generation to the next. According to new data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics, there are still 750 million illiterate adults, and two-thirds of them are women.
These numbers are a stark reminder of the work ahead to meet Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 4 and 5 and the Education 2030 targets.
Literacy rate variations between States in India
India’s India’s literacy rate is 74.04%
Kerala achieved a literacy rate of 93.91%
The lowest is in Bihar, with a literacy rate of 63.82%.
Several other social indicators of the two states are correlated with these rates, such as:
Life expectancy at birth (71.61 for males and 75 for females in Kerala, 65.66 for males and 64.79 for females in Bihar)
Infant mortality per 1,000 live births (10 in Kerala, 61 in Bihar), the birth rate per 1,000 people (16.9 in Kerala, 30.9 in Bihar) and death rate per 1,000 people (6.4 in Kerala, 7.9 in Bihar).
Six Indian states account for about70% of all illiterates in India: Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, and West Bengal.
Slightly less than half of all Indian illiterates (48.12%) are in the six Hindi-speaking states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh.
Tripura literacy success
Presently Tripura has the highest literacy rate in India, 94.65 per cent. According to the 2011 census, the literacy level was 93.91 per cent in Kerala and 91.58 per cent in Mizoram, among the most literate states in the country.
The national literacy rate, according to the 2011 census, was 74.04 per cent. The Tripura success story is attributed to the involvement of local government bodies, including gram panchayats, NGOs, and local clubs under the close supervision of the State Literacy Mission Authority (SLMA) headed by the chief minister.
Tripura attained 87.75 per cent literacy in the 2011 census, from the 12th position in the 2001 census to the 4th position in the 2011 census. Among projects implemented by the state government to increase literacy in the state are 10,000 Anganwadi centres with 100 per cent enrolment.
The policy of no-fail till class VIII to prevent children from dropping out. Midday meals in all schools with an eclectic menu for all days of the week to attract more students.
No tuition fees in government colleges.
The holistic education system, implemented with equal interest in Agartala, remote areas, and the tribal autonomic areas, emphasises that people in Tripura do not just become literate but educated.
One pointer to the government’s interest in education is the near-total absence of child labour in Tripura.
We can divide factors causing migrations into two groups of factors as push and pull factors.
Push and Pull factors
Push and pull factors are those factors that either forcefully push people into migration or attract them. A push factor is forceful, and a factor that relates to the country from which a person migrates.
A pull factor is something concerning the country to which a person migrates. It is generally a benefit that attracts people to a certain place. Push and Pull factors are usually considered as north and south poles on a magnet.
Push Factors:
Not enough jobs, few opportunities, desertification, famine/drought, political fear/ persecution, poor medical care, loss of wealth, natural disasters, death threats, slavery, pollutions, poor housing, landlords, bullying, and poor chances of finding courtship
Pull Factors:
Job opportunities, better living conditions, political and or religious freedom, enjoyment, education, better medical care, security, family links, industry, better chances of finding courtship.
Overpopulation
Overpopulation is the state whereby the human population rises to an extent exceeding the carrying capacity of the ecological setting. In an overpopulated environment, the number of people might be more than the available essential materials for survival such as transport, water, shelter, food, or social amenities.
This regularly contributes to environmental deterioration, worsening in the quality of life, or even the disintegration of the population. Due to immigration, the decline in mortality rates, medical breakthroughs, and increased birth rates, populations will always increase and eventually gives rise to overpopulation.
Migration means the movement of people from one place to the other. It is an important control of population growth after fertility and mortality.
Migration of people into an area from outside is called immigration or in-migration while moving out of an area to other regions is called emigration or out-migration.
Immigration leads to an increased growth rate of population, emigration lowers the growth rate of population in the source region.
Mexico’s emigration problem is a unique one, with more than 98% of all Mexican migrants living in the U.S.A, the country with which
Mexico shares a border that runs 3110 km in length. The Mexican emigration rate increased substantially since the 1960s and, with more
than 11% of Mexicans living abroad, Mexico is the country with the largest number of emigrants in the world. According to estimates
from the UN 2015 report, in 2013, the United States, Germany and Russia had the largest number of immigrants of any country, while
Tuvalu and Tokelau had the lowest immigrant.
Types of migration
Net Migration
Net Migration is the difference between immigration (in-migration) and emigration (out-migration).
A positive value of net migration is that more people coming in and population growth, for example, 44% of North America and 88% of Europe. A negative value of migration is more people coming out and population decline.
International Migration
Emigration is an indicator of the economic and or social failures of society. It is a crossing of a national boundary. It is easier to control and monitor.
There are laws to control or inhibit these movements. Between 2 million and 3 million people emigrate each year.
Between 1965 and 2000, 175 million people have migrated: it accounts for 3% of the global population.
Internal Migration
It occurs within a country. It is the crossing of the population within domestic jurisdictional boundaries. It is the movement of people between states or provinces. There is little government control over internal migration.
Local Migration
Local migration is the migration of the people within a state or district. No state boundaries are crossed in the local migration. It happens for several reasons such as buying a new house in the same town or city, difficult to research since they are usually missed in census data. It is based on a change of income or lifestyle. Americans change residence every 5 to 7 years.
Voluntary migration
Voluntary migration is where the migrant makes the decision to move. Most migration is voluntary.
Involuntary migration
It is a forced migration in which the migrant has no role in the decision-making process. It includes mostly slavery. It is estimated that about 11 million African slaves were brought to the Americas between 1519 and 1867.
In 1860, there were close to 4 million slaves in the United States. People involved in involuntary migration are refugees due to military conscription, children of migrants, people in situations of divorce or separation.
Brain Drain
Brain drain is related to educationally specific selective migrations. Some countries are losing the most educated segment of their population. It can be both a benefit for the receiving country and a problem for the country of origin.
Receiving country
It is getting highly qualified labor which is contributing to the economy right away. It promotes economic growth in strategic sectors: science and technology.
It does not have to pay education and health costs, for example, 30% of Mexicans with a Ph.D. are in the US.
Country of origin
Education and health costs are not paid back to the country of origin. It is losing potential leaders and talent: Between 15 and 40% of a graduating class in Canada will move to the US.
It has a long-term impact on economic growth. It has the possibility of getting remittances. Many brain drain migrants have skills that they can’t use at home: The resources and technology may not be available there. The specific labor market is not big enough.
The human population keeps increasing, exhaustible natural resources such as arable land, coral reefs, freshwater, fossil fuels, and forests continue to drop sharply.
This creates competitive demand for vital life-sustaining resources and contributes to an incredible decline in the quality of life.
Accelerated Habitat Loss
Overpopulation will increase the loss of ecosystems such as Wetlands, Wildlife, Rain forest, coral reefs, aquatic life forms, and grasslands.
Ex: Once 14% of the entire earth is covered with rain forest now it is only 6%.30% of ocean reefs are lost since 1980 due to acidification and global warming. More than half the original wetlands have been lost.
Amplified Climate Change and Global Warming – The more the number of people, the more the number of vehicles and industries would be. Furthermore, more population tends to increase the use of energy sources such as coal and firewood which contributes to increased greenhouse gas emissions.
Hence, because of the accumulation of human-generated greenhouse gases and carbon footprint in the atmosphere, the planet has continued to witness amplified global warming and climate change. The effects of climate change and global warming are resulting in extreme hunger, drought, flooding, and loss of habitat.
Loss of Biodiversity
Overpopulation has caused encroachment into frontier forests and destruction of natural ecosystems that have led to the mass extinction of species.
The number of threatened species persists to multiply in number whereas some have completely gone extinct. This is because of human activities such as acidifying water, overexploitation of natural resources, pollution, overfishing, poaching, and destruction of natural systems which are necessary for the survival of different species.
Decrease of fresh water
The unrelenting nature of overpopulation on the earth has destroyed most of the world’s fresh systems. Most of the lakes, streams, rivers, and groundwater making up freshwater have been polluted.
According to the global outlook of water resources, these activities influenced by overpopulation have only left less than 1% of the planet’s freshwater readily accessible for human utilization.
Water vulnerability is already affecting many overpopulated nations, especially in some developing countries, as the demands for water tend to be more than accessible water.
Millions of fish species from freshwater ecosystems are on the verge of extinction. Thus, as human inhabitants rise in number, so will the problem of quality freshwater accessibility.
Lower Life Expectancy and Diminished Quality of Life
Overpopulation lowers the standards of living since it creates stress on the vital resources for survival and increases the difficulty of accessing the consistent supply of quality food, water, energy, health, security, and shelter. Consequently, it makes the poor become poorer, and they often opt for poor living conditions to survive.
Eventually, it gives rise to lower life expectancy. The situation is serious in developing nations such as southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa where most of the poor populations submit to inadequate and poor diets.
Rise in Unemployment, Crime Rate, and Violence
In overpopulated nations, the available job is fewer than the overall job-seeking population. This contributes to high levels of unemployment.
In turn, lack of unemployment leads to elevated crime rates because of theft, drug cartels, and militia groups which are exploited as options for attaining basic resources and necessities such as food, good living standards, and wealth.
Violence and conflicts arise when people start competing for the available limited resources.
Increased Intensive Farming
As the population has grown over the years, farming practices have evolved to produce enough food to feed larger numbers of people.
However, intensive farming methods also cause damage to local ecosystems and the land, which may pose problems in the future.
Irrigation is a method of providing water to crops by artificial methods. India is not only hot, there is seasonal and irregular rainfall.
To address these problems irrigation is important. Cultivation of annual crops continued high temperature, hydrophytes crops, porous soil, and commercial farming make irrigation essential.
Agriculture pattern & Cropping pattern in India
Sources of irrigation in India
The methods of irrigation change on location and various factors such as soil, rainfall, perennial and non-perennial river, ground availability, and nature of crops.
a)Canal Irrigation
Canal irrigation is one of the most important sources of irrigation. It accounts for about 24% of the total irrigation in the nation. It is an effective source of irrigation in low-level relief, deep fertile soil, and perennial river areas.
The total area under canal irrigation in India is 15.8 million hectares in 2014. 60% of Canal irrigation is found in the northern plains such as UP, Punjab, Haryana, Bihar, and Rajasthan.
Types of Canal Irrigation
There are two types of Canal Irrigation one is Inundation Canals and another one is Perennial Canals.
Inundation Canals
The water is taken out without any barrage and dam. Useful for diversion of flood and remains operational in the rainy season.
Perennial Canals
Most canal in India falls under Perennial Canals. By Constructing a barrage in the Perennial rivers.
b) Well Irrigation
About 62% of the net irrigated area in India is irrigated by Wells. Well, irrigation is cheap and dependable.
Well, irrigation is popular in areas where tank and canal irrigation is not available. There are two types of Well irrigation. One is Open Well and another one is Tube Well.
1.Open Wells
Open Wells is widely used where there is sufficient groundwater.
Ex: Delta regions of Cauvery, Krishna, Godavari, Mahanadi, and part of Tapti and Narmada Valleys.
2. Tube Wells
Tube wells are used in the areas where the water table is low and the surface is soft. Also drilled in hard rocky terrains.
Ex: Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, and Maharashtra.
3. Tank Irrigation
Tanks are both natural and man-made. A hollow is built on the surface by constructing bunds across the stream, and canals. Tank Irrigation is an old system of irrigation in India.
The Tanks are used to collect water during the rainy season and store it for irrigation and other purposes. It includes Ponds and Lakes. Tank irrigation is popular in peninsular India.
It is popular in peninsular India due to the following reasons:
Hard to dig canals and wells in undulating relief and hard rocks.
Natural tank formations due to natural depression in the surfaces.
Perennial river absence in Peninsular regions.
No percolation in Impermeable rock structure.
People, Population and agricultural fields scattered in various areas.
Table: Leading State in Tank Irrigation
State
Area in Lakh Hectares(2013-2014)
1
Tamil Nadu
3.78
2
Andra Pradesh
3.40
3
Madya Pradesh
2.64
4
Telangana
2.3
5
Karnataka
1.54
States that use Tank Irrigation System
Modern Sources of irrigation
In India Drip, Poly House Central Pivot irrigation and sprinklers are used.
Drip system
Watering in drops near the root of the plant. Useful for Big trees and horticulture.
PER DROP MORE CROP(Improving water use efficiency) – Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY)
Micro Irrigation scheme sponsored by the Government of India to promote drip and sprinkler irrigation to save water.
Andra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu accounts for 78% of total micro Irrigation in the country.
Rain Gun
As the name suggests throw water like rain using a Water gun or rain gun. These sprinklers are used for crops having a height of 4 feet (1.22 m) or more.
For example Maize, Sugarcane.
Center-Pivot Irrigation or Central Pivot Irrigation
It is also called a Waterwheel or Circle Irrigation. This equipment has a sprinkler that rotates and waters the crops.
Multipurpose River Valley Projects
Management of water using scientific methods such as the construction of dams across rivers. Multipurpose river valley project is multipurpose applications such as the combination of Irrigation with Hydro Power Plants.
Also used for Controlling floods, fisheries, Industrial needs, Navigation, etc.
Table: Multipurpose River Valley Projects
Multipurpose River Valley Projects
Conclusion
The main sources of irrigation in India include Canals, Tanks, and Wells. Also in India, there are several other systems which include rainwater harvesting, dams, etc. The latest one is the drip irrigation system, which saves a lot of water.
FAQ
Tube well irrigation is highest in which state?
Uttar Pradesh State has the highest number of tube wells in India.
Every water in nature has dissolved mineral salts in it. Salinity is defined as the amount of salt in grams dissolved in 1 kg of seawater and it is usually expressed in Part Per Thousand (PPT).
The salinity of 24.7 PPT is considered as the upper limit to mark ‘brackish water’.
The saltiest place on earth
Lake Van (Turkey) – 330 PPT
Dead Sea (Jordan) – 238 PPT
Great Salt Lake (Usa) – 220 PPT
Salinity distribution of ocean by Source Wiki
Factors of Salinity distribution of ocean water
The salinity of water, in the ocean’s surface layer, depends on evaporation and precipitation.
The salinity of seawater in coastal regions depends on freshwater flow from rivers, in the polar regions due to the freezing and thawing of ice.
Sometimes wind also influences the salinity in a particular area by transferring water from one area to another area.
The Salinity distribution is influenced also due to ocean currents.
The salinity, temperature, and density of water are interrelated. Thereby any variation in the temperature or density influences the water’s salinity.
Horizontal Distribution of Salinity
The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 PPT and 37 PPT and in the case of the landlocked Red Sea, it is as high as 41 PPT.
In the estuaries and the Arctic, the salinity fluctuates from 0-35 PPT, and in the hot and dry region, where the evaporation is high, the salinity reaches 70PPT.
The salinity in the Pacific Ocean is due to its shape and large area and the Salinity decreases from 35 PPT to 31 PPT in the western parts of the Northern Hemisphere due to the influx of melted water from the Arctic region.
Similarly, in 15° – 20° south, it decreases to 33 PPT and the average salinity of the Atlantic ocean is roughly 36 PPT.
The highest salinity is recorded between 15° and 20° latitudes and maximum salinity, 37 PPT, is recorded between 20° N and 30° N and 20° W – 60° W and its gradually decreases towards the north.
The North Sea, in spite of its location in higher latitudes, records higher salinity due to more saline water which is brought by the North Atlantic Drift.
Baltic sea records low salinity due to the influx of river water in huge quantity.
The Mediterranean sea records higher salinity due to high evaporation.
Salinity is very low in the Black Sea because of the enormous freshwater influx by rivers.
Danube, Dnieper, Don, Dniester, Kuban rivers drain into the Black Sea.
The average salinity, in the Indian ocean, is 35 PPT and low salinity is observed in the Bay of Bengal because of the influx of river water.
On the other hand, salinity in the Arabian sea is higher due to high evaporation and a low influx of freshwater.
Danube, Dnieper, Don, Dniester, Kuban rivers drains into Black Sea
Vertical distribution of salinity in ocean UPSC
Salinity also changes with depth, also the location influences it and the salinity at the surface of the sea depends on evaporation, loss of water, the influx of water, etc.
Salinity at the depth is fixed as there is no way water is added or removal is possible and there is a remarkable difference in salinity between the zone on the surface and zones on the depth.
The less salinity water stay above and more salinity water is at the depth.
Salinity generally increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called the Halocline, where the salinity increase sharply.
And other factors being constant, increasing the salinity of seawater causes its density to increase.
Highly salinity water generally sinks below the low salinity water and this phenomenon leads to stratification by salinity.
Types of soil in India with states & Soil distribution in India
Andhra Pradesh
Red Soil is 66% of the cultivated area and presents mostly in Rayalaseema districts. Black Soil covers almost 25%, it is present in the coastal district and part of Rayalaseema and Telangana.
Alluvial loamy clay soil covers 5% of the cultivated area found in Krishna and Godavari deltas. The coastal sands are only 3% and the remaining 1% is laterite soil.
Arunachal Pradesh
This state only has a 2% area for cultivation due to its pre humid ecosystem, elevated ridges, and intermontane valleys. Major types of soil are inceptisol, entisols, and ultisols. Alluvial soil found in river valleys is good for agriculture.
Crops grown here are Rice, Millet, Maize, Wheat, oilseeds, ginger, pulses, etc.
Assam
Assam has mainly four types of soil, they are Alluvial Soil, Piedmont Soil, Hill Soil, and Laterite soils. Alluvial soil is distributed over Brahmaputra and Barak Plain.
Piedmont Soils are confined to the northern narrow zone along the piedmont zone of Himalayan foothill and it comprises of Bhabar and Tarai soil that covers the Brahmaputra valley.
Hill Soils are found in the southern hilly terrains, this soil is classified as Red Sandy soil and Red loamy soils.
Laterite Soils were found over the N.C.Hills districts covering parts of southern Karbi Plateau, Karbe Anglong district, Golaghat district, and Barak Plain.
Bihar
The common soil in Bihar is Alluvium from the Indo-Gangetic plains. Piedmont Swamp soil found in the north-western part of the West Champaran district
Terai soil is found in the eastern part of Bihar along the border of Nepal. Other common soils found in Bihar are clay soil, sand soil, and loamy soil.
Chhattisgarh
Two types predominate the black, clayey soils and the red-to-yellow soils.
Entisols covers 19.5% cultivated area of the state, Inceptisols 14.8%, Alfisols 39%, Mollisols 0.3% and Vertisols 26.4%. Red soil is present in the eastern and southern parts of the Deccan Plateau.
Goa
The main soil of Goa is Coastal Alluvial soil, mixed red and black soil, laterite soil,and red sandy soil, which are sub-divided into 32 soil series.
The maximum thickness of laterite is observedalong the coast in the west and minimum along the Ghat section in the East.
The soils of Goa are mostly lateritic (81%). They are sandy loam to silt-loam in texture, well-drained, and highly acidic (5.5 to 6.5 pH).
Gujarat
The soils of Gujarat can be broadly classified into nine groups: black soil, mixed red and black soils, residual sandy soils, alluvial soils, saline/alkali soils, lateritic soils, hilly soils, desert soils, and forest soils.
The southern parts of the Gujarat plains show deep black soils. Central Gujarat possesses sandy loam soil, locally called Goradu.
Haryana
The soil type found in Haryana is alluvial. In Haryana, the soil is almost entirely formed of alluvium.
The soils are loamy sand to sandy loam on the surface and sandy loam to clay loam.
Himachal Pradesh
Major soil is brown hill soil, sub-mountain soils, mountain meadow soil, and red loamy soil.
The soil found in Shimla is general sandy loam. The crops cultivated are Wheat, maize, rice, barley, seed potato, mushrooms, olives, fig, etc.
Jharkhand
The soil of Jharkhand is five and they are Red Soil, Sandy Soil, Black soil, Laterite soil, and Red Micacious soil.
Sandy soil, is generally found in Hazaribagh and Dhanbad. The black soil, is found in the Rajmahal area. Laterite soil, is found in the western part of Ranchi, Palamu, and parts of Santhal Parganas and Singhbhum.
Red Soil is found in most parts of Jharkhand except in the basins of Damodar and in the Rajmahal areas.
Red micacious soil is mostly found in the mica regions such as Koderma, Mandu, etc.
Karnataka
Red soils: Red gravelly loam soil, Red loam soil, Red gravelly clay soil, Red clay soil.
Black soil: gravelly soil, loose, black soil, basalt deposits. Lateritic soils:
Lateritic gravelly soil, Lateritic soil.
Kerala
The soils of Kerala can be broadly grouped into coastal alluvium, mixed alluvium, acid saline, kari, laterite, red, hill, black cotton, and forest soils.
Madhya Pradesh
The major types of soils found in the state are Black soil, most predominantly in the Malwa region, Mahakoshal, and in southern Bundelkhand.
Red and yellow soil, in the Baghelkhand region. Alluvial soil, in Northern Madhya Pradesh.
Maharashtra
The soils of Maharashtra are residual, derived from the igneous basalts. The soil in the river basins of Godavari, Bhima, Krishna, and Tapi has a deep layer of fertile black basalt soil, which is rich in humus.
Manipur
The soil of Manipur belongs to 4 orders, 8 suborders, 13 great groups, and 23 subgroups. It is observed that the Inceptisols are the dominant soils followed by Ultisols, Entisols, and Alfisols and occupy 38.4%, 36.4%, 23.1% of the total geographical area of the State, respectively. Lake and marshy land occupy 1.9 percent.
Meghalaya
Meghalaya soils are rich in organic carbon, which is a measure of nitrogen supplying the potential of the soil, deficient in available phosphorous, and medium to low in available potassium. The reaction of the soils varies from acidic (pH 5.0 to 6.0) to strongly acidic (pH 4.5 to 5.0).
Mizoram
This state has sand loamy and clay loamy soil. It is rich in organic carbon and moderately rich in potash. Soil acidic range is 4.5-5.6 pH due to the high rainfall during May to September.
Nagaland
Nagaland soils are acidic, very rich in organic carbon but poor in available phosphate and potash content.
More than 66% of the land is Inceptisols. Its textures are fine clay, clay loamy, and fine loamy clay.
Odisha
Soil types range from fertile alluvial deltaic soils in coastal plains, mixed red and black soils in Central tableland, red and yellow soils.
Punjab
Punjab states soil are the clay, clay loam, sandy clay, silt clay, sandy clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy loam, silt loam, sand, loamy sand, and silt.
The soils are sandy loam to clay loam with light grey color to dark color, the structure is loose and more fertile. But the soils are low in NPK and humus.
Rajasthan
Rajasthan’s large area has desert soil, which covers the area west of the Aravallis up to the Pakistan border. The hilly tracts of the Aravali are characterized by the black, lava soils that sustain the growth of cotton and sugarcane.
Sikkim
Sikkim has well-drained coarse loamy, fragmental soils with brown to dark brown color, developed from sandstone parent rock.
The hills of Sikkim mainly consist of gneiss and schist which weather produce generally poor and shallow brown clay soils.
Tamil Nadu
The primary types of soil found in Tamilnadu are · Red soils, (62 percent) · Black soils (12 percent) · Laterite soils (3 percent) and · Coastal (7percent).
Telangana
Telangana contains various soil types, some of which are red sandy loams (Chalaka), Red loamy sands (Dubba), lateritic soils, salt-affected soils, alluvial soils, shallow to medium black soils, and very deep black cotton soils.
Tripura
The hills have red laterite soil that is porous. The flood plains and narrow valleys are overlain by alluvial soil, and those in the west and south constitute most of the agricultural land
Uttar Pradesh
Most of the area of Uttar Pradesh is covered by a deep layer of alluvium spread by the slow-moving rivers of the Ganges system. Those extremely fertile alluvial soils range from sandy to clayey loam. The soils in the southern part of the state are generally mixed red and black or red-to-yellow.
Uttarakhand
Uttarakhand has Quartzite soil; Volcanic soil; Brown soil; Alluvial soil; and Tertiary soil.
West Bengal
Soil found in West Bengal is Mountain soils, Alluvial soils, Red soils, and Saline soils.
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
The soil type of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands ranges from sandy clay to sandy loam. These have developed under the dominant influence of vegetation and climate over diverse parent material. The uplands under forest cover are intensely leached, but runoff is very high, wherever forest cover has been removed completely.
Chandigarh
The soils in UT Chandigarh are loamy sand at the surface and calcareous sandy loam in subsurface layers. The hard clay forms pan at depths varying between 20 and 30 m. In northern parts, the soil is sandy to sandy loam whereas it is loamy to silt loam in southern parts.
Dadra and Nagar Haveli
The Union Territory is having clay- loam type of soil, which is poor in drainage. The terrain of the south-eastern part is undulating to hilly and is shallow soil.
Daman and Diu
It is found that the soils of Dadra & Nagar Haveli are rich in Potash, medium in phosphorus, and medium to high in Nitrogen. Soil PH is 6.5-7.5.
Delhi
Delhi areas have mostly light with a subordinate amount of medium texture soils. The light texture soils are represented by sandy, loamy, sand, and sandy loam; whereas medium texture soils are represented by loam silty loam.
Jammu and Kashmir
The outer plains of Jammu are covered with Alluvial soils. The hilly and mountainous areas are covered with residual soils. Other Areas are covered with morainic soils.
Generally, the soil in J&K is loamy with little clayey soil that contains small amounts of lime with a high magnesium content.
Ladakh
Soil in Ladakh Region By Narender9 – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=23815628
Soils in Leh and Kargil district are sandy to loam in texture, with medium to high in organic matter with poor water holding capacity. Wheat and barley are traditional crops of Ladakh, also cereals are grown for food and fodder.
The vegetation found here is Willow groves, Juniper yew, Wild roses, and herbs. Vegetables grown here are Potato, Peas, Onion, Cabbage, and Cauliflower. Apricots and apples are the main fruits of Ladakh and are widely grown in Sham, Nubra, and Kargil.
Lakshadweep
Lakshadweep soil types and crops cultivate By The.chhayachitrakar – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=60464005
Lakshadweep is a group of Islands in the Arabian sea. It has a soil layer with overlying coral limestone. That is the soil in Lakshadweep is mainly derived from the coral limestones. It includes coral sands and lagoonal sands.
These soil are dominantly sandy soil that is formed by the physical weathering of coral limestones. This is because almost all the inhabited islands are coral atolls.
Main and probably only crop cultivated here is Coconut (Cacos nucifera). The varieties of coconut found here are Laccadive micro, Laccadive ordinary, green dwarf, etc.
Puducherry
The major area of the Union Territory is covered by Red soil of Sandy and Clay loam type. In some places, Ferruginous red soil is found. Along with the river courses, Alluvial soils are found. Also, Coastal Alluvium is all along the coast as a narrow belt.
The major food crops grown here are Rice, Ragi, Bajra, Pulses and cash crops grown here are cotton, groundnut, sugarcane, etc.
FAQ
1.Sandy soil is found in which state?
Sandy soil is mostly found in western Rajasthan, Southern Haryana, South-west Punjab, North-Western Gujarat and also along the east and west coast of India. In Goa, it is found in Salcete Taluk and towards the western Canacona taluk and also in Marmugao Taluk
2. Red soil states in India?
Tamil Nadu has the red soil in India. Red soil is also found in Southern Karnataka, North-Eastern Andra Pradesh and parts of Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Chhattisgarh.
3. Alluvial soil found in which state?
The entire northern plains include Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal.
It is made of two chains of mountains that are separated by a large depression. It has peaked as high as 2500m and some even reach above the ocean surface.
Distribution of Mid Ocean Ridges By J M Watson – USGS, U.S Geological Survey; http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/baseball.html, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=4575922
Mid oceanic ridge formation
It occurs along the divergent plant boundaries when a new floor is formed, due to earth tectonic plates spread apart, also called seafloor spreading. In the volcanic eruption, molten basalt comes out.
The speed of spreading of molten basalt affects the shape of the ridge. Faster spreading produces wider and more gentle slopes and slower spreading results in irregular steep topography.
Mid oceanic ridge location
Aden Ridge – Part of an active oblique rift system in the Gulf of Aden, between Somalia and the Arabian Peninsula
Explorer Ridge – mid-ocean ridge west of British Columbia, Canada
Galapagos Spreading Center – an east-west trending mid-ocean ridge east of the eponymous islands between the Nazca and Cocos plates
Gorda Ridge – tectonic spreading centre off the northern coast of California and southern Oregon
Juan de Fuca Ridge – A divergent plate boundary off the coast of the Pacific Northwest region of North America.
South American–Antarctic Ridge – Mid-ocean ridge in the South Atlantic between the South American Plate and the Antarctic Plate
Chile Rise – An oceanic ridge at the tectonic divergent plate boundary between the Nazca and Antarctic plates
East Pacific Rise – A mid-oceanic ridge at a divergent tectonic plate boundary on the floor of the Pacific Ocean
The Gakkel Ridge – A mid-oceanic ridge under the Arctic Ocean between the North American Plate and the Eurasian Plate(Mid-Arctic Ridge)
Pacific-Antarctic Ridge – Tectonic plate boundary in the South Pacific Ocean
Central Indian Ridge – A north-south-trending mid-ocean ridge in the western Indian Ocean
Carlsberg Ridge – The northern section of the Central Indian Ridge between the African Plate and the Indo-Australian Plate
Southeast Indian Ridge – A mid-ocean ridge in the southern Indian Ocean
Southwest Indian Ridge – A mid-ocean ridge on the bed of the south-west Indian Ocean and south-east the Atlantic Ocean
Mid-Atlantic Ridge – A divergent tectonic plate boundary that in the North Atlantic separates the Eurasian and North American plates, and in the South Atlantic separates the African and South American plates
Kolbeinsey Ridge – A segment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge north of Iceland in the Arctic Ocean
Knipovich Ridge – (between Greenland and Spitsbergen)
Reykjanes Ridge -(south of Iceland)
Mid oceanic ridge volcanoes
The most volcanic activity takes place along the mid-ocean ridges. About 75% of all volcanic activity on the planet takes place here.
In the volcanic eruption, the dominant type of lava that erupts out is Basalt and other lava types are Andesite, dacite, and Picrite.
These ridges exhibit active volcanism and seismicity and due to this oceanic crust is in a constant renewed at the Mid oceanic ridge.
Compare rift valley from mid ocean ridge
When a divergent boundary is found between continental plates, it’s a rift valley. When a divergent boundary is found between oceanic plates, it’s a mid-ocean ridge.
The common between the rift valley and the oceanic ridge is they are both similar seismic structures that are were formed by moving tectonic plates.
Also, both are the result of two plates moving away from one another, for rift valley continental plates move away and in the case of Mid-ocean ridge, its oceanic plates move away.
FAQ
How does the new seafloor form at the mid-ocean ridge?
In the Mid Ocean Ridge, a hot and less dense material comes below the earth’s crust and this material flows sideways and magma comes out. This magma spreads as a floor and cools down to become the new seafloor.
What is the role of the mid-ocean ridge in the movement of lithospheric plates?
In the mid-oceanic ridge, the magma comes out, rises to the seafloor and fills the gap in the lithospheric plates, and moves it.
The youngest crust is found in the mid-ocean ridge?
The youngest crust is found in the mid-ocean ridge is the sea floor.
* * All the Notes in this blog, are referred from Tamil Nadu State Board Books and Samacheer Kalvi Books. Kindly check with the original Tamil Nadu state board books and Ncert Books.
