Category: History

🧭 Overview: Why Peasant Movements Happened

🔴 Trigger: British mercantilist policies → 📉 Agriculture degraded → ⚡ Commercialisation of farming
⚠️ Result: Increased taxes, land alienation, debt traps, famines → Widespread peasant unrest

Factor	Explanation
Stagnation of Agriculture	No growth due to land crowding, handicraft ruin, & high revenue
Land Revenue Systems	👑 Zamindari, Ryotwari, Mahalwari → Tenants squeezed for money
Indebtedness	Borrowed from 💰moneylenders at high interest, lost land
Commercialisation	Turned cultivators into landless labourers, sharecroppers
Evictions	Turned cultivators into landless laborers, sharecroppers
Depression & Famines	1870s-90s → Starvation + revolt 🌾
Forest Loss	For cash crops → Displaced tribals & peasants
Rent Increases	Unjust hikes, illegal exactions → 🔥 revolts

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🕰️ Timeline of Movements: Two Phases

Phase	Timeframe	Features
🟡 Phase 1	Before 1857	Local revolts, no national agenda, cultural leaders
🔵 Phase 2	After 1857	Politicised, organised, national linkages (INC, CPI)

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🔸 Major Peasant Movements (Colour-coded Timeline)

🔶 Before 1857

🏴 Movement	📍 Region	🧑‍🏫 Leader(s)	💥 Reason
Sanyasi Revolt (1763–1800)	Bengal	Majnu Shah Fakir, Devi Chaudhurani	Religious taxes + famine
Narkelberia (1782–1831)	Bengal	Titu Mir	Beard tax + indigo oppression
Pagal Panthis (1825–1833)	Bengal	Tipu Shah	Rent hikes & zamindari abuse

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🔷 After 1857

🔥 Movement	📍 Region	👥 Leaders	🎯 Focus
Indigo Revolt (1859–60)	Bengal	Biswas Brothers	Forced indigo farming
Deccan Riots (1875)	Maharashtra	–	Moneylender exploitation
Pabna Movement (1873–85)	Bengal	Ishan Roy, Khodi Mulla	Anti-zamindari + no-rent union
Champaran (1917)	Bihar	Gandhiji	‘Teen Kathia’ Indigo system
Kheda Satyagraha (1918)	Gujarat	Gandhiji	Revenue relief post-famine
Eka Movement (1921)	UP	Madari Pasi	High rents, forced labor
Mappila Rebellion (1921)	Kerala	–	Landlord oppression + communal
Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)	Gujarat	Sardar Patel	22% tax hike resistance
AIKS Formation (1936)	All India	Sahajanand, N.G. Ranga	Tenant rights, zamindari end
Tebhaga (1946)	Bengal	Communist Party	2/3 share to tillers
Telangana (1946–52)	AP	CPI, AMS	Guerrilla fight vs landlords & razakars

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Sanyasi Revolt (Around 1763–1800)

The Sanyasi rebellion took place between 1770 and 1780 AD in Bengal. The terrible famine in Bengal in 1770 AD caused this province to suffer from misery. On the other hand, the restrictions imposed on the pilgrimage made the Sanyasis upset with the British and led to their revolt against the company rule.

These Sanyasis were followers of Shankaracharya and were divided into various sects. The Sanyasis belonging to the ‘Giri’ sect rose in revolt against the company’s policies.

The Sanyasi very joined by farmers, evicted landlords, and disbanded soldiers. Majnu Shah Fakir was the leader of the revolt. The centre of revolt was Rangpur to Dhaka. The Sanyasis defeated a Company of sepoys and killed the commander. They captured some districts and started running a parallel government.

The Sanyasis started looting the British godowns and the standing crops and made stiff resistance to the company’s forces.

This rebellion continued till the end of the 18th century. The Governor-General Warren Hastings launched a military campaign against the Sanyasis. The mighty English power crushed the revolt.

Chirag Ali, Musa Shah, Bhawani Pathak and Debi Chaudhurani were important leaders of the revolt. Debi Chaudhurani‘s participation is an important feature as it shows the active participation of women in early resistance against the British.

The description of the Sanyasi rebellion can be found in Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s famous book “Anand Math”, which is a semi-historical novel.

Narkelberia (1782–1831)

The Muslim tenants fought back against Hindu landlords who imposed a beard tax on Faraizis and British Indigo planters. The leader of the movement is Mir Nithar Ali (Titu Mir).

Initially is it was an armed peasant uprising against the British, the movement took on a religious dimension. It later merged into the Wahhabi movement.

The Narkelberia uprising is considered the first armed uprising by peasants against the British. The Narkelberia uprising was so strong that Lord William Benetick deployed a strong army in November 1831 to suppress the uprising.

Titu Mir, along with 50 other fellow peasants, were killed, and about 800 peasants were arrested.

Pagal Panthis, 1833

Pagal Panthis were a socio-religious group belonging to different religions, including tribals living around the Mymensingh region of Bengal, in present-day Bangladesh. This socio-religious group was founded by Karim Shah.

After the death of Karim Shah, this group was headed by Tipu Shah, son of Karim Shah. Pagal Panthis firmly believed that God made all equal and all have equal access to the resources.

Pagal Panthis became popular amongst the landless peasants and tribals of the region. The tribes of the region, Hodi, Garo, and Hajong tribes, also have the same philosophies, hence were attracted toward the teachings and preachings of the Pagal Panthis.

Muslims were against the Pagal Panthis. There were a large number of landless peasants in the region who were exploited by the local zamindars, local rulers with the backing of the British officers. Severe taxation was imposed on the region’s peasants.

Forcible collections and the usurpation of the property increased peasant discontentment and disorder. The Pagal Panthis sought to protect and defend peasants from the militia of the landlords and the company’s armed forces.

By the advice of Tipu Shah, the peasants stopped paying taxes. In 1833, Tipu Shah was arrested. However, this did not end the uprising of the Pagal Panthis, compelling the British to lower the tax rates and relax.

After Tipu Shah died in 1852, after his death, there was another wave of uprisings by Pagal Panthis and suppressed by the Company’s officers.

Four Noble Truths of Buddha

The four noble truths prescribed by Buddha are as follows:

1. The Noble Truth of Suffering: Birth, age, death, unpleasantness, separation, unfulfilled wish.
2. The Noble Truth of the Origin of Suffering: thirst for pleasure, power, long life, etc. are the causes of sorrow.
3. The Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering (Nirvana): complete stopping or release from sorrow.
4. The Noble Truth of the Path Leading to Cessation of Suffering: the Noble Eightfold Path or the Middle Path.
   

Buddhism believed in karma and the doctrine of rebirth. Past actions determine one’s condition in this birth. To be free from karma or the cycle of rebirth is to attain nirvana. It can be attained by following the Middle Path.

Among the heterodox sects, Buddhism was the most popular. It went on to emerge as a powerful religion patronised by various rulers. It was so influential that its ideas were adopted by Asoka as a state policy. Though it virtually disappeared from India for nearly a millennium, it spread far and wide and is widely followed even today in the South-east and East Asian countries. In the mid-twentieth century it was revived in India by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

Life of Buddha

Gautama Buddha was born as Siddhartha in the Sakya clan to its king Suddhodhana and his chief queen Mahamaya. His mother Mahamaya dreamt of a white elephant with six tusks entering her womb when she was pregnant. Learned men prophesied that the child would either become ‘a Universal Emperor or a Universal Teacher’. While Mahamaya was going to her parents’ home, Siddhartha was born in a park in Lumbini near Kapailavastu. Siddhartha grew in luxury as a royal prince. He married Yashodhara and had a son named Rahula. When he was riding on his chariot with his charioteer one day outside the palace, he saw an old man, a sick man, a corpse and finally a religious mendicant.

Overcome by remorse at the misery of people, he left his palace in the dead of night in search of eternal truth. He rode in his chariot pulled by his favourite horse Kanthaka and driven by his charioteer Channa far away from the city. He cut his hair and sent it along with his discarded garments and jewellery to his father. This is known as Mahabhiraskramana or the Great Going Forth.

Siddhartha wandered about and joined Alara Kalama as a disciple for a brief period. He also sought guidance from a hermit Uddaka Ramaputta. Siddartha was not satisfied with their path and practised severe austerities, which left him nearly dead. One day, he ate rice boiled in milk given by a milkmaid named Sujata and began meditation under a pipal tree in Bodhgaya.

After 49 days of meditation, he attained enlightenment, at the age of 35. Thereafter, he came to be called Buddha or the Enlightened. He then delivered his first sermon in a deer park in Sarnath near Varanasi. This event is described as Dharmachakra-parivartana or ‘wheel of the great law’.

He spoke about the Four Noble Truths and the Middle Path. He established Sangha and spread his ideas far and wide. Buddha and his followers travelled for eight months of the year and stayed at a place for four months of the rainy season. At the age of 80, he passed away in Kusinagara. This is known as Parinirvana. The prominent disciples of Buddha were Sariputta, Mahamoggallana, Mahakaccayana and Ananda. Buddha had a huge following among both the royalty and lay persons.

Buddhist Councils

After the death of Buddha, the tenets and other aspects of Buddhism were decided upon in the councils of Buddhist monks. Over a period of time, four Buddhist councils were held. The First Buddhist Council was held at Rajgriha after Buddha’s death. It was headed by Upali. In this council, Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka. Ananda recited Sutta Pitaka.

The Second Buddhist Council met at Vaishali a century after Buddha’s death. The Buddhist Order split into two later. One was called the Sthaviravadins or ‘Believers in the Teachings of the Elders’ and the other was known as Mahasanghikas or ‘Members of the Great Community’. The Third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra. It was convened by Asoka.

The Sthaviravadins established themselves strongly and expelled the heretics. The last section called “Kathavatthu” was added to Abhidhamma Pitaka. The Fourth Buddhist Council was held at Kashmir during the reign of Kanishka. Sarvastivadins were an important sect of Buddhism. Its doctrines were compiled in Mahavibhasa.

Buddhist Sects

In course of time, Sthaviravadins, Mahasanghikas and Sarvastivadins emerged as major sects of Buddhism. New ideas emerged among the Sarvastivadins and Mahasanghikas. It led to the emergence of Mahayana and Hinayana (the Great and Lesser Vehicles) in Buddhism. Mahayana or the Great Vehicle became popular and influential in India. Nalanda University was an important centre of Buddhist learning and was patronised by the Palas. It spread to China and Japan.

Hinayana or the Lesser Vehicle became popular in Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand and other South-east Asian countries. By the end of the Gupta period, Vajrayana or the Vehicle of the Thunderbolt emerged. It was popular in Bengal and Bihar. It was influenced by primitive local cults and spread to Tibet in the 11th century CE. The Vikramasila University in Bihar was an important centre of Vajrayana Buddhism.

Buddhism in India began to decline with the onset of the Bhakti movement. Slowly Buddhism came to be influenced by Hindu practices. Soon, Buddhism was incorporated into Hinduism, and Buddha came to be considered an avatar of Vishnu in some traditions.

Buddhist Literature

The Buddhist texts were compiled in Pali. The Pali canons are called as the Tripitakas (Three Baskets). They are Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka. Vinaya Pitaka deals with monastic rules and moral disciplines. Sutta Pitaka dwells upon discourses and teachings of Buddha. Abhidhamma Pitaka expounds Buddhist philosophy. The Sutta Pitaka, which contains the teachings of Buddha, is divided into five groups or Nikayas.

They contain popular works such as Theragatha and Therigatha (Hymns of the Elder Monks and Nuns) and Jataka tales (Buddha’s deeds in previous births as Bodhisattva).

Other important Buddhist works include Milinda Panha, a discussion between Greco-Bactrian king Menander and Buddhist monk Nagasena, and Ceylonese chronicles Dipavamsa (Island Chronicles), Mahavamsa (Great Chronicle) and Culavamsa (Lesser Chronicle).

Mughal Empire’s social structure

The social structure of the Mughal Empire was complex and hierarchical, reflecting the diversity of the society that existed within its vast territories. The Mughals, who were of Central Asian Turkic-Mongol origin, ruled over a predominantly Indian population. The social structure was influenced by a combination of indigenous Indian traditions and the Central Asian administrative practices introduced by the Mughals. Here is an overview of the key components of the Mughal social structure:

1. Emperor and the Royal Family:

Emperor (Badshah):

• At the pinnacle of the social hierarchy was the Mughal emperor, often referred to as the Badshah. The emperor held absolute authority and was considered the highest authority in matters of governance, law, and religion.

Royal Family:

• The royal family, including the empress (Begum) and the emperor’s children, constituted the highest stratum of society. Princes and princesses held privileged positions, and marriages within the royal family were often strategic alliances to consolidate power.

2. Nobility and Aristocracy:

Mansabdars:

• The Mughal nobility consisted of Mansabdars, officials who held military ranks (mansabs) and were appointed to administrative and military positions by the emperor. Mansabdars were responsible for maintaining order, collecting revenue, and commanding the imperial army.

Zamindars:

• Below the Mansabdars were the Zamindars, who were local landlords and administrators responsible for collecting revenue from the peasants. They played a crucial role in the agrarian economy and were tasked with maintaining law and order in their territories.

Jagirdars:

• Some Mansabdars were granted jagirs, which were revenue assignments. Jagirdars collected revenue from their assigned territories but were expected to maintain a stipulated number of troops for imperial service.

3. Commoners:

Peasants (Raiyats):

• The majority of the population consisted of peasants or raiyats who worked the land. They were responsible for paying a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue to the Zamindars.

Artisans and Traders:

• Artisans and traders formed another segment of society, engaging in various crafts and commercial activities. The growth of trade and commerce during the Mughal era contributed to the economic prosperity of the empire.

4. Religious Scholars and Clergy:

Ulema:

• The Ulema, or religious scholars, played a significant role in the Mughal social structure. They were responsible for religious education, interpreting Islamic law, and advising the rulers on matters of faith.

Qazis and Muftis:

• Qazis (judges) and Muftis (legal scholars) were part of the legal and judicial system, ensuring the administration of justice based on Islamic principles.

5. Artisans, Laborers, and Servants:

Artisans and Laborers:

• Skilled and unskilled labourers, including artisans, craftsmen, and construction workers, formed a vital part of the social fabric.

Servants and Slaves:

• The Mughal elite employed a significant number of domestic servants and slaves who performed various duties within the households.

6. Social Mobility:

Limited Social Mobility:

• Social mobility was somewhat restricted in the Mughal social structure. However, individuals could rise in status through exceptional service, military achievements, or patronage from the ruling elite.

Interactions of Cultures:

• The Mughal Empire witnessed a synthesis of Central Asian and Indian cultural elements, creating a diverse and vibrant social environment where different communities interacted and influenced each other.

Mughal Society

The population of India is estimated to have been around 15 crores in the 16th century and 20 crores in the 18th century. Large areas of land were under forest cover and the area under cultivation would have been much less.

As agriculture was the prime occupation of the society the village community was the chief institution of social organization.

Though the nature, composition, and governance of the village differed from place to place there were certain similarities in the village administration.

Society

Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore, Ahmadabad, Dacca, and Multan were important cities of the empire that could be ranked along with contemporary European cities like London Paris, and Iran. Afghans, Indian Muslims (shaikhzadas), Rajputs, and Marathas also obtained the status of nobility. It is estimated that during the reign of Akbar over 15% of the nobility consisted of Rajputs.

Raja Man Singh, Raja Todar Mal, and Raja Birbal were Rajput nobles of repute during Akbar. The Rajputs appointed Kayasths and Khatris for various positions in government administration. Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb employed Marathas in their nobility.

For example, Shaji, the father of Shivaji, served Shah Jahan for some time. There were continuous migrations from Central Asia as there were better career prospects in India.

These migrations led to the enrichment of culture through the assimilation of diversity. Though the nobility was divided into ethnic lines they formed a composite class promoting a syncretic culture by patronizing painters, musicians, and singers of both Persian and Indian origin.

The caste system was a dominant institution in society. Castes at lower levels were subject to much repression. Despite the popular Bhakti movement raising the banner of revolt against discrimination, the deprived and disadvantaged classes, who were landless peasants, were subject to forced labour.

The Hindu women had only a limited right of inheritance. Afghans, Indian Muslims, Shaikhzadas, Rajputs, and Marathas also obtained the status of nobility.

Culture

Though the nobility was divided into ethnic lines they formed a composite class promoting a syncretic culture by patronizing painters, musicians, and singers of both Persian and Indian origin. The caste system was a dominant institution in society. Castes at lower levels were subject to much repression.

Despite the popular Bhakti movement raising the banner of revolt against discrimination, the deprived and disadvantaged classes, who were landless peasants, were subject to forced labour.

The Hindu women had only a limited right of inheritance. Widow remarriage was not permitted among upper-caste women. Along with household activities, the women were involved in spinning yarn and helping in agricultural operations.

Mughal administration discouraged the practice of sati that was prevalent among communities of the higher caste. Muslim brides were entitled to receive Mehr (money mandatorily paid by the groom) at the time of marriage and also had the right to inherit property, though it was not equal to the share of the male members of the family.

Conclusion

In the grand tapestry of history, the social structure of the Mughal Empire emerges as a captivating mosaic, woven with threads of diversity, hierarchy, and cultural synthesis. This intricate societal framework, shaped by a fusion of Central Asian and Indian influences, defined the roles, privileges, and interactions of its varied inhabitants.

The Mughal Empire’s summit was crowned by the omnipotent emperor, surrounded by a royal family whose lineage connected them to the splendours of Central Asia. The nobility, Mansabdars and Zamindars, formed a formidable tier, orchestrating the intricacies of governance and revenue collection. Yet, beneath the regal courts and fortified palaces lay the vast majority – the peasantry toiling the fertile lands, artisans crafting cultural treasures, and traders navigating the bustling markets.

Religious scholars and clergy contributed their wisdom to matters of faith and justice, while the laborers and servants upheld the foundation of daily life. This structured hierarchy, while reflecting a certain degree of rigidity, also witnessed the interplay of cultures, where Central Asian traditions blended seamlessly with indigenous Indian practices.

The Mughal social structure was not merely a static framework but a dynamic arena where individuals could ascend through exceptional service or military valour. As diverse communities interacted, a unique synthesis of cultures emerged, leaving an enduring impact on the social fabric of the Indian subcontinent.

In conclusion, the social structure of the Mughal Empire stands as a testament to the complexities and nuances of a society that thrived amidst diversity. Its legacy extends beyond the annals of history, permeating the cultural tapestry of modern-day India, where echoes of the Mughal era continue to resonate in the vibrant mosaic of traditions and communities.