History

Impact of Social Reform Movements in the Socio-Economic Development of Tamil Nadu Tnpsc

The social reform movements that took place in Tamil Nadu in the 19th and early 20th centuries had a profound impact on the socio-economic development of the state. These movements challenged the traditional social order and paved the way for greater social and economic equality.

Education for Women

One of the most important impacts of the social reform movements was the promotion of female education. Prior to the 19th century, girls were rarely educated in Tamil Nadu. However, the social reform movements argued that education was essential for women’s empowerment and that it would help to improve the status of women in society. As a result of these efforts, female literacy rates in Tamil Nadu increased significantly from the late 19th century onwards.

Another important impact of the social reform movements was the abolition of social evils such as sati, child marriage, and untouchability.

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Sati

Sati was a practice in which a widow was forced to immolate herself on her husband’s funeral pyre. Child marriage was the practice of marrying girls at a very young age.

Untouchability

Untouchability was a system of social stratification that discriminated against people considered to be “untouchable.” The social reform movements campaigned against these practices and helped to bring about their abolition.

The social reform movements also played a role in the development of Tamil Nadu’s economy. They promoted the development of modern industries and education, which helped to create jobs and improve the standard of living for people in the state. They also helped to raise awareness of social and economic issues, which led to the development of government policies that addressed these issues.

Overall, the social reform movements had a profound impact on the socio-economic development of Tamil Nadu. They helped to promote female education, abolish social evils, and develop the state’s economy. As a result of these efforts, Tamil Nadu has become one of the most progressive states in India.

Here are some specific examples of the impact of social reform movements in Tamil Nadu:

The Theosophical Society,

Founded by Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, was another important social reform movement in Tamil Nadu. The Theosophical Society promoted education for women and social reform.

The Self-Respect Movement

Founded by E. V. Ramasamy Naicker, was a major social reform movement in Tamil Nadu in the early 20th century. The Self-Respect Movement challenged the caste system and promoted social equality.

The Dravidian Movement

The Dravidian Movement was founded in the early 20th century by Periyar E. V. Ramasamy Naicker. The Dravidian Movement challenged the Brahminical hegemony in Tamil Nadu and promoted social equality for all castes.

Abolition of the Devadasi system

The Devadasi system is a Hindu cultural practice in which young girls are dedicated to a temple or deity. They are then considered to be the property of the temple and are often forced into prostitution. The system is considered to be a form of social slavery and has been condemned by many organizations, including the United Nations. The Devadasi system was abolished in India in 1947, with the passage of the Madras Devadasis (Prevention of Dedication) Act. However, the practice still persists in some parts of the country.

Abolition of Sanskrit for medical college seat in Tamilnadu

The requirement of Sanskrit knowledge for admission to medical colleges in Tamil Nadu was abolished in 1925. This was a major victory for the Self-Respect Movement, which had been campaigning against the practice for many years.

The requirement for Sanskrit knowledge had been in place since the 19th century. It was seen as a way to ensure that only Brahmins, who were the traditional custodians of Sanskrit, could become doctors. This effectively excluded members of other castes from the medical profession.

The Self-Respect Movement challenged the requirement of Sanskrit knowledge on the grounds that it was discriminatory and that it did not have any bearing on the ability to practice medicine. They argued that medical education should be open to all, regardless of caste or religion.

The movement’s campaign was successful, and the requirement for Sanskrit knowledge was abolished in 1925. This was a major victory for the movement and it helped to pave the way for greater social equality in Tamil Nadu.

The abolition of the Sanskrit requirement had a number of positive consequences. It opened up the medical profession to members of all castes and it helped to increase the number of doctors from non-Brahmin backgrounds. This led to a more equitable distribution of medical services in Tamil Nadu.

The abolition of the Sanskrit requirement also had a symbolic significance. It was a sign that the traditional caste system was beginning to break down and that Tamil Nadu was becoming a more open and inclusive society.

The abolition of the Sanskrit requirement is a reminder that social reform is possible and that it can have a positive impact on society. It is also a reminder that the Self-Respect Movement was a major force for social change in Tamil Nadu.

All Caste temple priests in Tamilnadu

The appointment of priests in temples in Tamil Nadu is no longer restricted to Brahmins. In 2010, the then Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi issued an order that anyone, regardless of caste, could be appointed as a priest in a temple, if they were qualified and had the necessary training. This order was challenged in court, but it was upheld by the Madras High Court in 2016.

Since then, there have been a number of cases of people from non-Brahmin castes being appointed as priests in temples in Tamil Nadu. In some cases, this has been met with resistance from the local community, but in other cases, it has been welcomed.

One of the most well-known cases of a non-Brahmin being appointed as a temple priest in Tamil Nadu is that of P. Rajagopal, who was appointed as the priest of the Meenakshi Amman Temple in Madurai in 2015. Rajagopal is from a caste that is considered to be “backward” in the Hindu caste system. His appointment was met with protests from some members of the local community, but it was ultimately upheld by the court.

The appointment of non-Brahmin priests in temples in Tamil Nadu is a sign of the changing times. It is a reflection of the growing social and religious reform movements in the state, and it is a challenge to the traditional caste system. It is also a sign of the growing empowerment of non-Brahmin communities in Tamil Nadu.

These are just a few examples of the many social reform movements that took place in Tamil Nadu in the 19th and early 20th centuries. These movements had a profound impact on the socio-economic development of the state and helped to make Tamil Nadu one of the most progressive states in India.

History of Feminism and Women’s movement in Modern India, its impact Upsc

Women’s movement in India

Today most girls from all families, poor or rich go to school, colleges, IT companies along with boys. But this was not the case two hundred years ago. Also, Nowadays Girls has to be an adult before they are legally married. And as per the law, Women can marry anyone they wish from any religion, caste, race, etc.

And also the Windows can remarry too and can get a divorce if they are not happy with the marriage. Also, women can vote like men and can stand in elections and even they can rule the entire Republic of India. This is not the case two years ago, most children are married at an early age.

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Another social custom in India, both Hindu and Muslim men can marry more than one girl. And also in certain of India women are praised if they choose death by burning in the fire if her husband dies. In some cases, widows are forcibly burned, along with the dead body of her husband. This custom is called Sati, which means virtuous women.

Earlier, Women have no access to education and right to their parents or ancestorial properties. Women and men are not considered equal in society. But things started to change in the Nineteenth and twentieth centuries, that is during early British rule.

Changing Culture and Atmosphere

In the early 19th century, there was a lot of discussions took place about the evil social customs and practices. The reason behind this development of communication, newspaper, books, etc. Where people started to read about the European culture, revolutions, politics, etc.

These books, newspapers are available at a cheap cost, cheaper than the manuscripts. Hindu manuscripts are not accessible to everyone. These manuscripts were accessible only to the so-called upper caste people. As a result, these newspapers went to accessible to ordinary people, also these ordinary started to express and share their idea in public forums.

As a result, these discussions started to reach wider audiences and this has ignited the movement for social change.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Abolision of Sati

He founded a reform association known as Brahmo Sabha and later known as Brahmo Samaj in Calcutta. Raja Ram Mohan Roy spread the knowledge of western education and brought greater freedom and equality for women.

He also wrote that the women were forced to do the domestic work and were confined to the home and kitchen. Also, the women were not allowed to move out and become educated.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy campaigned against the practice of Sati. He showed the old manuscripts that there is no practice of Sati in the ancient texts. Most important, many British officials began to criticize the Indian customs and traditions. The British official then supported the campaign of Raja Ram Mohan Roy against the practice of Sati.

Finally, in 1829 British officials banned the practice of Sati.

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar used ancient texts to suggest Widows could remarry. The suggestions of Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar were then adopted by the British officials and a law was passed in 1856 that permits widow remarriage.

Veerasalingam Pantulu

The idea of widow remarriage passed to the rest of the Indian subcontinent. During the second half of the 19th century, in the Telugu language-speaking areas of the Madras Presidency, a reformer named Veerasalingam Pantulu formed an association for widow remarriage.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati

In the same period, several reformers and intellectuals in Bombay’s presidency pledge themselves to work for the widow remarriage. One such intellectual Swami Dayanand Saraswati. He founded the association called Arya Samaj.

One of the main objectives of Arya Samaj is widow remarriage.

Even after several reformers, who worked a lot for widow remarriage. Yet the number of widows remarried remained low. This is due to the fact that society and conservative groups continued to oppose the law.

E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker or Periyar

Periyar work on feminism is unparallel and inferior to none and also controversial even today. Self-respect marriages, women empowerment, abolition of devadasi system, asking women to birth control to stay independent throughout life, Widow remmariages etc are famous ones.

Education of Women

Many intellectuals, reformers, etc felt that the education of girls is very low to nil in the Indian subcontinent. They felt that education for girls was necessary to improve the condition of women.

Vidyasagar in Calcutta and other reformers started schools for girls. Many in the society had fear over the school when it was first opened in the mid-nineteenth century and they thought the schools would take girls away from home and prevent them from doing domestic duties.

Many thought the girls who travel to school, will corrupt them and felt girls should stay away from public places. Due to this girls were thought at home by their liberal fathers, husband, and private teachers.

Also, some girls were self-taught such as Rashsundari Debi, and taught other girls. In the late 19th-century girl schools were established by Arya Samaj in Punjab and Jyotirao Phule in Maharashtra.

Some reformers such as Mumtaz Ali reinterpreted Koran to argue for women’s education. Also in some Muslim houses in North India women learned to read Koran in Arabic.

Written Works of Women

In the 19th century, the Begums of Bhopal played an important role in women’s education. They started schools for girls at Aligarh. Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain founded schools for Muslim girls in Patna and Calcutta.

Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain was a great and fearless critic of conservative ideas. She fearlessly expressed that all religious leaders irrespective of faith made women inferior to men by spreading their conservative ideas. As early as the 1880’s women started to enter the universities and a sizable number of women became doctors and teachers.

Many women started to write books and news columns in Newspapers, Magazines, etc to express their views about Feminism, Society, and the importance of women’s education. Also fearlessly criticized Male patriarchal society.

The important ones are,

1.Tarabai Shinde from Poona published a book Stripurushtulna (Meaning: A comparison between Women and Men). This book criticized the social differences between men and women.

2. Pandita Ramabai who was a Sanskrit scholar expressed her views on Hinduism. She felt that Hinduism was oppressive towards women and also wrote a book about the miserable lives of upper-caste Hindu women.

She then founded Widow home at Poona and it provided shelter to Widows and ill-treated Womens by their husbands. In these homes, women were trained to become economically independent.

All these activities alarmed the right-wing activities and Hindu nationalists. They felt that Hindu Women adopting Western Ways and this would corrupt the Hindu culture and values. Also, the orthodox Muslims felt the same.

Women’s becoming Pressure Groups

In the 19th century latter half, women started to become independent, they were working for reform, they wrote books, magazines, started schools for women, and set up a training center for women.

From the early 20th century, Women’s associations went on become political pressure groups. They have demanded laws for female suffrage (Right to Vote). Also demanded good health care and education for women. The women also joined various kinds of nationalist and socialist movements.

The Governtment of India Act of 1919 prohibited women from becoming legislators. But the first Justice Party Government in Madras Presidency, reversed this policy on 1 April 1921. Voter qualification were made gender neutral. By this resolution in 1926, Dr. Muthulakshmi Reddi became first woman to become a member of any legislature in India.

But this was not case in rest of India. Leader such as Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose supported the demand for equality. As a result, the Nationalist leaders promised there would be full suffrage (Right to vote for women) after independence. Till independence they have asked the women association to concentrate on the Anti-British struggles.

Abolition of Child Marriage

The Women Association and other liberals challenge another custom such as Child Marriage. A number of Indian legislators in the central legislative assembly fought to make law preventing child marriage. As result, 1929 the Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed.

According to this act no man below age of 18 and woman below the age of 16 could marry.

References

https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/hess208.pdf

Self Respect Movement Tnpsc

Self Respect Movement

The self respect Movement is a political movement started by Periyar, in Tamil Nadu, earlier known as Madras Presidency in 1925, with the aim of achieving equal rights for oppressed castes, and rights for women.

This movement is a political and social movement aimed at destroying age-old Hindu customs and superstitious activity. Also, it creates new social order, promotes rational thinking, and fights for the rights of women.

For initiating this social movement, E.V. Ramasamy, or Periyar is known as the Father of Self Respect Movement and this movement is also called Dravidian Movement.

The first conference for this movement was held in 1929 at Chengalpattu. In 1937, Justice Party has declined a lot because they Won the election by the majority, and C. Rajagopalachari, went on to become Chief Minister.

Against Hindi in Schools

C. Rajagopalachari, Chief Minister of Madras, introduced Hindia as a compulsory language in schools. Periyar agitated against Hindi as a compulsory subject. Also, huge numbers of students participated in the agitations.

In 1925, the Communist party was started and did various political movements for the labor community.

M.Singaravelu and his associates part of the communist party were impressed by the Self Respect Movement. They extended their support to this movement and worked on a common plan called the Erode Plan.

Objectives of Self Respect Movement

The main objective of this movement is to make the Dravidian community a truly rational society. Other objectives are:

To save Dravidian culture from the domination of Aryan culture,

To teach Tamil civilization,

To reform the native religion by eliminating the brahmin influence.

To eliminate superstitious practices,

To restore the Dravidian culture and glory,

To promote self-respect marriage, marriage with the absence of brahmin priesthood.,

To promote intercaste marriage and widow remarriage,

Removal of caste surnames,

Not to employ the services of the Brahmins in any social events.

The above are some of the principles of the self-respect movement. Also, a number of political parties formed based on this movement such as DMK, AIADMK, DMDK, MDMK, etc.

Achievement of Self Respect Movement

The movement played an important role in the socio-political and religious life of the people of south Indian especially Tamil Nadu. Also, it inspired Tamil Nationalism and a sense of oneness among Tamil people.
The Brahmins slowly lost the monopoly and influence due to Periyar’s propaganda against orthodoxy.
This movement inspired Backward caste, Scheduled Caste, Scheduled tribes, women, and also upper caste orthodox women, filled with a sense of dignity, and confidence to fight social injustice in the name of religion.
This movement promoted inter-caste and inter-religious marriages. Also made the legalization of marriages without a Brahmin priest.

Conclusion

The Self-respect Movement started by Periyar in Madras Presidency, aimed to destroy orthodox and evil social customs such as caste, oppression, women’s slavery, etc. Also aimed to create a new social order, with rational thinking and also demanded equal rights for lower and backward caste people, and also focussed on women’s rights.

Varna system and Varnashrama dharma Upsc

Varna system and Varnashrama dharma

The ancient Indian Civilization evolved with the Varnashrama Dharma that started the principle of hierarchy i.e. Upper and Lower Strata. The Varna system is also called the Four Varna System. According to the Four Varna System, the people were divided into Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vysyas, and Shudras.

This form of division on the basis of birth is inculcated and socialized along with different phases of civilization from which inequalities surfaced in the society.

Caste is an English word. But it is borrowed from the Portuguese word ‘Casta’, which means ‘pure breed’.

Caste in the Past

The evil caste system is an institution that is unique to the Indian subcontinent, among Hindus. The form of the institution is not found elsewhere in the world, but the social arrangements with similar effects are found. Caste System is the institution that is the characteristic of Hindu Society. But this caste institution is also have spread to other religious communities such as Christians, Sikhs, and Muslims.

Caste referred to a broad institutional arrangement that starts with the ancient language ‘Sanskrit’. It is referred by two terms, one is ‘Varna’ and another one is ‘Jati’.

‘Varna’, literally means Color. Varna system, in Sanskrit, means a four-fold division of the Indian society into brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra. This system excludes a large section of the population that consists of outcastes, foreigners, slaves, and others.

Outcaste, are the ones who are part of the four-fold divisions. These outcastes people are currently referred to as Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe People.

References

9107chap3.pmd (ncert.nic.in)

Chola administration Upsc

Chola Administration

Central Government

The Cholas had a superb system of administration. The emperor or king was at the highest of the administration. The extent and resources of the Chola Empire increased the facility and prestige of the monarchy.

The large capital cities like Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram, the massive royal courts and extensive grants to the temples reveal the authority of the king.

They undertook royal tours to extend the efficiency of the administration. There was elaborate administrative machinery comprising various officials called perundanam and sirudanam.

Revenue

The land revenue department was well organized. It had been called puravuvarithinaikkalam.

All lands were carefully surveyed and classified for assessment of revenue. The residential portion of the village was called ur nattam. These and other lands like the lands belonging to temples were exempted from tax.

Besides land revenue, there have been tolls and customs on goods taken from one place to different, various sorts of professional taxes, dues levied on ceremonial occasions like marriages, and judicial fines.

During the adversity, there has been remission of taxes, and Kulottunga I became famous by abolishing tolls and earned the title – Sungam Tavirtta Cholan.

The main items of state expenditure were the king and his court, army and navy, roads, irrigation tanks, and canals.

Chola Military and Administration

Cholas maintained an army of elephants, cavalry, infantry, and navy. Also, Cholas maintained seventy regiments.

The Royal troops were called Kaikkolaperumpadai. Velaikkarar, were private troops to defend the king. For the training of the army and military cantonment called Kadagams existed. The imperial Chola paid special attention to its Navy.

The navy of Tamils as well as ancient Indians reached its peak under the Cholas. The Cholas controlled the Malabar and Coromandal coast. In fact, the Bay of Bengal looks like a Lake for the Cholas.

Provincial Administration

The Chola Empire was divided into mandalams and every mandalam into valanadus and nadus. In each nadu there have been a variety of autonomous villages.

The royal princes or officers were responsible for mandalams. The valanadu was under periyanattar and nadu under nattar. The town was referred to as nagaram and it had been under the administration of a council called nagarattar.

Village Assemblies

The Village governance with Sabha’s and committees developed and reached a zenith during the Cholas. Uttiramerur inscription that belongs to the Parantaka-I, gives the account of the function and formation of Village councils.

As per Uttiramerur inscription, the village was divided into thirty wards. Each ward has to nominate its member to the village council.

The qualification of the Ward Member mentioned in the Uttiramerur inscription is:

He should own a minimum of one-fourth Veli of land. He should own residence. He should be aged above 30 years and should be below 70 years. He should possess knowledge of Vedas.

Disqualification rules mentioned in the Uttiramerur inscription:

Should not be a member of the committee for the past three years. The one who does not have submitted his accounts as committee members.The one who committed sins. The one who stole the property of others.

Kudavolai System

The nominated person, from every ward, is chosen by Kudavolai System for a year. In Kudavolai system, the name of the person is written on Palm-leaves and put into the pot.

The small boy or girl is asked to take thirty names each for each ward. Then they were divided into six Variyams (Departments).

The six different variyams are Village administration are Samvatsara Variyam, Eri Variyam, Thotta Variyam, Pancha Variyam, Pon Variyam, and Puravuvari Variyam. On the whole, the committee members were called Variyapperumakkal. Variyapperumakkal met in temples or under the tree and passed the resolution. The number of committees and ward members varied from village or village.

Socio-economic Life in the Chola country

The evil caste system was widely prevalent during Chola’s rule. The special privileges were enjoyed by the Brahmins and Kshatriyas. The inscription of later Cholas, mentions Valangai and Idangai castes which were two major divisions among the castes.

However, there was cooperation between caste and sub-castes in social and non-secular life. The position of girls in Chola rule was poor. The practice of ‘Sati’ is prevalent, especially among the Royal families.

Another evil practice, the devadasi system or dancing girls dedicated to the temples emerged during the Cholas. Both Saivism and Vaishnavism existed and flourished. Different temples were built with the patronage of Cholas Kings and Queens.

The temples remained as centers of economic activity in the Chola country. The mathas had a great influence during this era. Both agriculture and industry flourished during the Cholas. The forest land used for the construction and maintenance of irrigation tanks led to agricultural development.

The weaving industry flourished, especially the silk weaving at Kanchi. The metal industry flourished as a result of the demand for temple deities and utensils. Trade and commerce flourished with the construction of trunk roads or ‘peruvazhis’ and merchant guilds.

Several denominations of coins issued in Gold, Silver, and Copper. Cholas has trade contracts with China, Sumatra, Java, and Arabia. Also, Cholas imported horses from Arabia to strengthen its cavalry.

Education and Literature

Education was also given importance. Besides the temples and mathas as educational centres, several educational institutions also flourished. The inscription at Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal, and Thirubhuvanai provide details of the universities that existed in these places.

Apart from the Vedas and Epics, subjects like mathematics and medicine were taught in these institutions, An endowment of lands was made to run these institutions. The development of Tamil literature reached its peak during the Chola period. Sivakasintamani written by Thiruthakkadevar and Kundalakesi belonged to the 10thcentury.

The Ramayana composed by Kamban and therefore the Periyapuranam or Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar are the 2 masterpieces of this age. Jayankondar’s Kalingattupparani describes the Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga I. The Moovarula written by Ottakuthar depicts the lifetime of three Chola kings.

The Nalavenba was written by Pugalendi. The works on Tamil grammar like Kalladam by Kalladanar, Yapperungalam by Amirthasagarar, a Jain, Nannul by Pavanandhi, and Virasoliyam by Buddhamitra were the products of the Chola age.

Cultural contribution of Pallavas Upsc

Cultural contribution of Pallavas

Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period. The caste system became strong. The highest place of society is held by brahmins. Brahmin was granted lands by kings and nobles.

Also, Brahmin was given the responsibility to look after the temples.

Pallavas art and architecture Upsc

Buddhism and Jainism declined during the Pallava period. Also, Saivism and Vaishnavism were raised.

Raise of Savisim during Pallavas By Vidaikodiselvar S. Danabala – This file was derived from: SaivismFlag.pngDepartment of Hindu Religious and Cultural affairs, Sri Lanka, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=87546353

Bhakti Movement in Tamil Nadu

Nayanmars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Alwars contributed to the rise of Vaishnavism.This growth in Saivism and Vaishnavism is called as Bhakti Movement. They composed Tamil Hymns to reveal the importance of Bakthi or devotion. These two religions spread due to the construction of temples by the Pallava Kings.

63 Nayanmars contributed to the growth of Saivism By Ilya Mauter – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3911989

Education and Literature

Pallavas were great patrons of literature and education. Pallavas capital is Kanchi was an ancient centre of learning.

Pallavas Administration Upsc

Ghatika at Kachi attracted many students and scholars from all parts of India and the world. The founder of the Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman learned Vedas at Kanchi. Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer studied at Kanchi.

Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer studied at Kanchi By Rartat – Own work, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12013279

Dharmapala, who later became the Nalanda University head which belonged to Kanchi. Bharavi a great Sanskrit scholar lived in the time of Simhavishnu. Dandin adorned the court of Narasimhavarman-II.

Mattavilasaprahasanam, a Sanskrit play was written by Mahendravaraman-I. Tamil Literature also developed. Nayanmars and the Nalayradivyaprabandam composed Tamil religious hymns.

The Devaram is composed of Nayanmars and the Nalayradivyaprabandam is composed of Alwars.

Perundevanar was patronized by Nandivarman-II and he translated the Mahabharata in Tamil and named it Bharathavenba. Nandikkalambagam was important to work in this period but the sad Author of this work is still unknown. Music and Dance also developed during this period.

Conclusion

The contribution of the Pallavas to the cultural development of Tamil Nadu is significant. They had encouraged the growth of Tamil and Sanskrit literature.

Chalukya Art and Architecture Upsc

Temple Architecture

Vesara Style: A blend of Nagara and Dravida architectural styles, this unique form of temple design emerged and thrived in the regions of Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal.

Notable Sites:

Pattadakal
Aihole
Badami

Cave Temples:

Located in Ajanta, Ellora, and Nasik.
These temples are monolithic, carved directly into sloping hillsides.
While dedicated to Brahmanical deities, their design and craftsmanship reflect strong Buddhist influences.

Pattadakal

Pattadakal is renowned for its ten magnificent temples constructed during the 7th and 8th centuries, primarily dedicated to Lord Shiva. The most notable among them are the Papanatha Temple (built around 680 AD) and the Virupaksha Temple. Elements of Vaishnavism and Shaktism are also intricately woven into the site’s theological and legendary depictions.

Architectural Style:
The temples represent a fusion of two prominent Indian architectural traditions:

Rekha-Nagara-Prasada (North Indian style)
Dravida-Vimana (South Indian style)

The Ten Temples:

Kadasiddheshwar Temple
Jambu Lingeshwara Temple
Galaganatha Temple
Chandrashekhara Temple
Sangameshwara Temple
Kashi Vishwanath Temple
Mallikarjuna Temple
Virupaksha Temple
Papanatha Temple
Jain Narayana Temple

Highlights:

Papanatha Temple: Features a stunted, low tower characteristic of the northern architectural style.
The site is mentioned in historical texts by Srivijaya and is identified as “Petirgal” in Ptolemy’s Geography.

UNESCO Recognition:
Pattadakal is described by UNESCO as “a harmonious blend of architectural forms from northern and southern India.”

Construction Materials:
The temples were primarily built using locally abundant sandstone. Some sculptures are exquisitely carved from polished black granite.

Badami Temples

Hindu and Jain Cave Temples Complex:

This complex comprises a blend of Hindu and Jain cave temples, showcasing diverse architectural styles and religious influences.

Caves 1-4:

Material: Sandstone formations.
Notable Feature: Cave 1 depicts Shiva performing the Tandava dance as Nataraja.

Bhutanatha Group of Temples:

Location: Situated along the serene Agasthya Lake.
Historical Evolution:
- Initially influenced by Jain traditions.
- Later taken over by the Lingayats, who installed a Shiva Linga in the shrine and a Nandi in front.
Architectural Style: A harmonious blend of North Indian and early South Indian temple architecture.

Mallikarjuna Temple:

Location: Northeast of Agasthya Lake.
Historical Context: Dates to the later Chalukyas (Chalukyas of Kalyani).
Architecture:
- Features a tiered pyramid structure, emblematic of Western Chalukya architecture.
- Shikhara: Designed in the Dravidian style.

Additional Highlights:

Most Early Chalukyan caves and temples in Badami, except for Upper Shivalaya, are nirandhara structures (without circumambulatory paths).

Virupaksha Temple

The Largest Monument in Pattadakal:

Built in 740 AD by Queen Lokamahadevi, this grand temple was constructed to commemorate her husband’s victory over southern kings.

Architectural Features:

Style: Purely South Indian (Dravidian).
Tower (Shikhara):
- A towering three-storey pyramidal structure rises above the sanctum (garbhagriha).
- Each tier features intricate motifs that mirror the carvings within the sanctum.

Temple Layout:

Orientation: Faces east.
Key Components:
- A square sanctum (garbhagriha) with a circumambulatory path (pradakshina patha).
- An antarala (vestibule) flanked by two small shrines dedicated to Ganesha and Mahishamardini, positioned opposite each other.

Nandi-Mandapa:

Located to the east of the temple, this square pavilion is open on all four sides.
Houses a large image of Nandi placed on a raised platform.

Carvings and Depictions:

The sanctum walls are adorned with scenes from the Ramayana and deities from Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism traditions.
Key themes include:
- Vaishnavism: Narasimha and Varaha.
- Shaivism: Bhairava and Nataraja.
- Composite Forms: Harihara (half Shiva, half Vishnu).

Alternate Name:

Known as Sri Lokeshwara Mahashila Prasada to honor Queen Lokamahadevi, who commissioned this magnificent structure.

Aihole

The region flourished primarily during the reigns of Pulakesin I and Pulakesin II. Aihole, often regarded as the cradle of Indian temple architecture, is dotted with several groups of temples and two cave shrines.

Ravanphadi Cave

Structure: Consists of a mandapa (hall), garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum), and two side galleries flanking the mandapa.
Artwork: Houses a 6th-century relief depicting the dancing Shiva (Nataraja) with Parvati, Saptamatrikas (seven mothers of the Shaktism tradition), Ganesha, and Kartikeya.

Temple Layouts

Sandhara: Features a circumambulatory path.
Nirandhara: Lacks a circumambulatory path.

Superstructures

Shikhara: Tapering superstructure composed of discrete squares.
Mundamala: Temple without a superstructure, literally meaning “garland with a shaved head”.
Rekha-Prasada: Smooth, curvilinear superstructure based on squares, common in northern and central India.
Dravidian Vimana: Pyramidal style typical of southern India.
Kadamba-Chalukya Shikhara: A fusion style.

Notable Temples

Guadar Gudi: Features a centrally located garbhagriha, a Sandhara structure, and a mundamala shikhara.
Huchhimalli Gudi and Huchhapayya Gudi: Signify the development of the Rekha-Prasada type of shikhara.
Durga Temple: Notable for its apsidal plan, which is rare in early Chalukyan temples, and it also follows a Sandhara layout.

Architectural Significance

Construction: Vertical construction using blocks of stone.
Shikharas: Unique curvilinear and pyramid-like shikharas developed here, which were not seen in the southern regions.

Other Monuments

Buddhist Monument: Located on Meguti Hill.
Jain Monuments: Aihole preserves four collections of about ten Jain monuments from the 6th to 12th centuries, associated with the Meena Basti. These are found on Meguti Hill, Chanranthi Matha, Yoginarayana Complex, and an early Jaina cave temple.

Religious Diversity

While most temples are Brahmanical, Aihole also houses several Jain temples, reflecting the religious diversity and architectural richness of the period.

Lad Khan Temple (Aihole)

Also referred to as the Chalukya Shiva Temple, this structure was originally dedicated to Vishnu.

Architectural Style:

The temple follows the Panchayatana style, featuring a central shrine surrounded by four smaller shrines.

Special Feature:

The temple transitions from a rectangular layout at the base to a square structure at the top.

Paintings

In Badami, paintings are found in a cave temple dedicated to Vishnu. The Chalukyas embraced the Vakataka style of painting, with many artworks depicting various incarnations of Vishnu.

One of the most famous Chalukya paintings adorns the palace built by King Mangalesan (597-609). It portrays a scene of a ball being observed by the royal family and other guests.

Conclusion

The Chalukya dynasty’s architectural legacy is a testament to their artistic brilliance. Their temples in Aihole, Badami, and Pattadakal showcase a harmonious blend of Dravidian and Nagara styles, with intricate carvings and soaring shikharas. The Chalukyas’ artistic influence extended beyond architecture, encompassing paintings, sculptures, and literature.

Art and architecture of Rashtrakutas Upsc

Art and architecture of Rashtrakutas

The finest Rashtrakutas art and architecture were found at Ellora and Elephanta. Kailasa temple is a great temple at Ellora and has been excavated during ruling under Krishna-I. Kailasa temple was carved out from a huge rock of size 200 x 100 feet.

The temple, the shrine has four parts that are the doorway, a shrine for Nandi, and mandapa that surrounds the courtyard. The height of plinth (heavy base supporting base) over which the temple stands of height 25 feet.

The central face of the plinth has an elephant and lion figure, it is made in such a way that the whole temple is placed over the back of the elephant and lion . The three-tiered sikhara resembles the Mamallapuram rathas.

The interior of the temple has sixteen square pillared halls. The Kailasa temple has a sculpture of Durga killing the Buffalo Demon. Another sculpture has Ravana lifting the mount Kailasa.

The wall was depicted with the scenes of Ramayana. The architectural style of the Kailasa temples the more of Dravidian style. Another example of Rashtrakutas architecture is at an island near Bombay called Elephanta.

Island Elephanta is formerly called Sripuri. The Portuguese after seeing the elephant figure in Sripuri named the island Elephanta. The Rashtrakutas art and architecture reached their zenith in Elephanta.

There is a similarity between the sculptures of Ellora and Elephanta, there might same craftsmen who worked in Ellora and Elephanta. There are big figures of Dwarka-palakas at the doorway to the sanctum

There are pictures of Shiva in different forms such as Nataraja, Gangadhara, Ardhanareesvara, and Somaskanda in the wall of Prakara around the sanctum.

The main deity of the temple is Trimurthi. Shiva as creator, preserver, and destroyer is represented in three aspects by six-meter-high sculpture.

Temples built by Rashtrakutas

Kailasa Temple at Ellora, Maharashtra
Jain Narayan Temple at Pattadakal , Karnataka
Elephanta Caves, near Bombay

Cultural Contributions

The Rashtrakutas widely patronized Sanskrit literature.

There have been many scholars within the Rashtrakuta court. Trivikrama wrote Nalachampu and therefore the Kavirahasya was composed by Halayudha during the reign of Krishna III. The Jain literature flourished under the patronage of the Rashtrakutas.

Amogavarsha I, who was a Jain patronized many Jain scholars. His teacher Jinasena composed Parsvabhudaya, a biography of Parsva in verses. Another scholar Gunabhadra wrote the Adipurana, the life stories of various Jain saints.

Sakatayana wrote the grammar work called Amogavritti. The great mathematician of this era, Viracharya was the author of Ganitasaram.

The Kannada literature saw its beginning during the amount of the Rashtrakutas. Amogavarsha’s Kavirajamarga was the primary poetic add Kannada language. Pampa was the best of the Kannada poets. His famous work was Vikramasenavijaya. Ponna was another famous Kannada poet and he wrote Santipurana.

Lost wax technique upsc

Lost wax technique for Metal Works

The lost-wax technique or process is used for making objects of metals. This process is mostly used in Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and West Bengal.

The technique differs slightly in each region. The low wax process involves different steps.

First, the wax model of the image is made by the hand of pure beeswax the has been made liquid by melting over an open fire and then strained through a fine cloth into the basin of cold water.

Then the wax resolidifies immediately and is pressed through a pick or pharni that squeezes the wax into a noodle-like shape. These wax noodles then wound around to the shape of the image.

Next, the image is covered with a thick coating of paste that is made of equal parts of clay, sand, and cow dung. Into an opening on one side, a clay pot is fixed and in this molten metal is poured.

The weight of the metal to be used is ten times that of wax. Here used in the entire process is measured. The metal used here is the scraps of broken pots, pans, etc.

The molten metal is poured into the clay pot. Now the clay plastered model is exposed to firing. As the wax inside melts, the metal flows down the channel, and then it takes on the shape of the wax image.

This process is carried out like a religious ritual and all the steps take place in dead silence.

The image is later chiseled with files to smoothen and to give a smooth finish.

Sometimes an alloy of five metals such as gold, silver, copper, brass, and lead is used to cast bronze images.

Some famous bronze statues are Devi Chola Bronze, Ganesh Kashmir 7th Century, Nataraja Chola Period 12th century AD.

Mughal Empire History Tnpsc pdf

Mughal empire history

Mughal Empire Notes for Tnpsc Group 4. Important things to remember for examination are Administration and its posts names which are in Persian language, literary works, Arts and Architecture.

During Babur’s invasion, India was divided into a number of mutually warring states. There was no unity in North and Delhi sultanate was not strong.

The last sultan of Delhi lost control over his nobles and Rana Sanga, head of Rajput was determined to capture Delhi. During such a time Babur received an invitation from the Alam Khan, who is the uncle of Ibrahim Lodi, and Daulat Khan Lodi (Governor of Punjab) to invade India.

Babur(AD 1526-1530)

Called as Zahir-ud-Din Muhammad Babur was born in AD 1483 at Farghana in Central Asia, and was the eldest son of Umar Shaikh Mirza and was a descendant of Timur from his father side, Turk and Mongol from the mother’s side (Chengizkhan).

Babur became king of Farghana at the age of 11 after the death of his father in AD1494.

Battle of Panipet(1526)

Babur met Ibrahim Lodi in the Panipat on 21st April 1526. In the battle, Ibrahim Lodi was killed and brought Delhi Sultanate rule to an end.

And Babur laid the foundation of the Mughal Empire in India. This victory did not make him ruler of India but the victory against Rana Sanga of Mewar in the battle of Kanwah in AD 1527, Medini Rai of Malwa in AD 1528, and Muhammed Lodi in the battle of Ghaghra in AD 1529 made him rule of India.

During his period, the Mughal empire was extended from Bihar in the East to Punjab, Kabul, Kandahar, and Badakshan in the west.

Babur died at the age of 47 and nominated his son Humayun as the successor.

He wrote “Tuzuk-i-Babri” also called Memoirs of Babur in the Turkish language and he laid the foundation for the Mughal empire that lasted for over 200 years.

Humayun (AD 1530 – 1540 and AD 1555 – 1556)

He is the eldest son of Humayun and ascended the throne in AD 1530. Humayun was born in Kabul in AD 1508 and had three brothers named Kamran, Askari, and Hindal.

Humayun was appointed as Governor of Badakshan at the age of 20. As there was no law of Primogeniture that is the eldest son succeeding the throne, Humayun becoming the King was challenged by his brothers.

Also, he was surrounded by enemies, such as Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, Skerkhan of Bengal and Bihar and also Rajputs.

Then he was defeated by Sherkahn in the battle of Chausa in AD 1539 and in the battle of Kanauj in AD 1540.

He became homeless, married Hamida Banu Begum, and gave birth to Akbar in AD 1542 at Amarkot.

With the help of Shah of Persia, Humayun captured Kabul and Kandahar from his brother Kamran and captured Agra in AD 1555 after the exile of 15 years.

He had died tragically in AD 1556 and nominated his son Akbar as King and Bairam Khan as the guardian.

Akbar

Named Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, born on 23 November 1542 at Amarkot. Humayun crowned Akbar as the emperor at the age of 13 and made Bairam khan his guardian.

Second Battle of Panipat ( AD 1556)

Akbar first had to deal with Hemu, the Prime Minister of Muhammad Shah of Bengal who tried to capture Delhi. Akbar defeated Hemu at the second battle of Panipat in AD 1556 and consolidated the Mughal rule in Delhi and Agra.

Then after four years, Bairam khan was killed by Akbar during his pilgrimage to Meccan by his commanders. Then Akbar sought help from his foster mother Maham Anaga and controlled the affairs for two years. This rule of Maham Anaga was known as the “Petticoat Government”.

Then Akbar killed her son Adam Khan and Maham Anaga also died of grief and later Akbar became real ruler.

Akbar annexed Chunar and Malwa. Bihari Mal of Amber of Jaipur accepted his overlordship and gave his daughter in marriage to Akbar and Jahangir was born to them.

Then Akbar annexed the Rajput state of Gondwana and Rani Durgavathi was defeated. Then he conquered Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur. Akbar’s empire extended from Bengal in the East to Afghanistan in the west, from the Himalayas in the North to Golkonda in the south.

Rajput Policy

His relationship with Rajput was honest and brave. He married Jodhbai, who was the princess of Jaipur. Also, rulers of Bikaner and Jaisalmer gave their daughters in marriage to Akbar.

Akbar gave Rajput higher positions in his administration. The notable ones are Raja Mansingh, Raja Bhagawan Bas, Raja Todar Mal and Birbal.

He abolished ‘Jizya‘, and ‘Pilgrimage taxes’ which were collected from non-Muslims.

Literary works

Akbar patronized scholars such as Raja Todar Mal and translated Bhagavata Purana into Persian. Abul Fazal and his brother Abul Faizi translated a number of Sanskrit works to the Persian language.

Abul Fazl wrote Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Nama. Abul Faizi translated Ramayana and Mahabaratha into Persian from Sanskrit.

Tansen was a great musician in the Akbar’s court.

Akbars Religious Policy

He was very tolerant and his father was a ‘Sunni‘ and his mother and guardian Bairam and his tutor Sheikh Mubarak were ‘Shia‘ Muslims.

He build ‘Ibadat Khana‘, in 1575 and invited various leaders from different faiths to have discussions and he issued the famous ‘Infallibility Decree’ which made Akbar the religious head as well as the king.

Also, he promulgated a new religion called ‘Din-i-illahi‘ (Divine Faith), to establish a National Religion based on universal toleration, which comprised of good things from all the religions.

After Akbar’s death, Din-i-illahi started to disappear.

Land Revenue Reforms of Akbar

Shershah was the Akbar’s inspiration in the Land revenue system. Akbar with the help of Todarmal improved the land revenue system.

Akbar’s administration surveyed the state’s land and revenue was fixed as 1/3 of the actual product. The ryot(farmers), could pay their taxes either in cash or in kind.

Loans were provided to the farmers and could be paid in easy installments. Akbar’s government gave every cultivator ‘Patta’ (Title Deed) and was required to sign a qubuliyat (Deed of Agreement).

Mansabdari System

Mansabdari system of the Mughals is for civil and military administration and it was introduced by Akbar, and he borrowed this term from Persia.

The word Mansab means Grade or Rank. The Mansabdar’s job is to recruit troops and help the emperor. The Mansabdar were provided with a piece of land as per his rank and they got salaries from the revenue of the land.

Akbar contribution to Art and Architecture

Akbar builds Buland Darwaza, a gateway at Fatehpur Sikri to celebrate his Gujarat conquest. He constructed a new palace at Fatehpur Sikri, Akbari Mahal, Jahangiri Mahal, Lahore Fort, Panch Mahal, Jodh Bai Palace, etc were built with Red Sand Stone.

Jahangir (1605-1627 AD)

Akbar eldest son ‘Salim‘ assumed the title Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir which means “Conqueror of the world”. He became emperor of India in 1605 AD.

His eldest son Prince Khusru revolted against him and received the blessing of Guru Arjun Dev, who is the 5th Sikh Guru.

Both Prince Khusru and also Sikh Guru were killed. During Jahangir rule captain Willian Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe from England visited his court.

Sir Thomas Roe got permission from Jahangir in 1615 to set up trade at Surat which started the British story in India.

Jahangir was a scholar and a good writer and he wrote his autobiography “Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri”. He was famous for Justice, he set up a “Chain of Justice”, between Shah Burji palace in the fort of Agra.

People have to pull the chain and ask for Justice.

Role of Nurjahan

She was the daughter of Mirza Ghias and the wife of Sher Jahan. Her original name was Mehr-un-Nisa. Sher Afgan was killed by Jahangir and married Nurjahan.

Jahangir gave his title “Nur Mahal” which means Light of Palace and also gave title Nur Jahan which means “Light of the World“. She exercised real power between 1611-1626 which was called the Age of Nur Jahan.

She died in 1645 AD after the death of Jahangir. Jahangir was a good and kind ruler, he laid beautiful gardens at Srinagar. Example Shalimar and Nishat Gardens.

He builds Akbar Tomb at Sikandra, Itmad-ud-daula Tomb near Agra, and the Great Mosque at Lahore.

Shah Jahan

He is the son of Jahagir. Shah Jahan (means King of the World) original name was Khurram, who was born in 1592 AD at Lahore to a Hindu mother.

After the death of Jahangir, Nur Jahan summoned her son-in-law Shahriyar to the throne. But Shah Jahan’s father-in-law Asaf Khan send forces against Nur Jahan and Shahriyar, who defeated them.

And Placed Shah Jahan on the throne of Delhi, who was present at the Deccan at that time.

Conquest of Shah Jahan

He fought against Portuese and sent Mahabat Khan towards Deccan to conquer Ahmed Nagar and it was annexed with Mughal Empire in 1636 AD.

He failed to capture Khandahar after making three attempts and it exposed the weakness of the Mughal army. He defeated the Bijapur and Golkonda rulers and made Aurangazed the governor of Deccan.

His rule is considered as the “Golden Age of the Mughals“, the power and prestige of the empire reached heights during his time.

He fell ill in AD 1657 and a fight broke between his four sons for power. Shah Jahan was imprisoned in 1658 AD and he was passed in 1666 AD/

Shah Jahan Art and Architecture

He was called the “Prince of Builders“, and “Engineers king“. He founded Mughal cities in Red Sandstone and left them in white marble.

He built a new capital city “Shahjahanabad” and built a Red Fort in Delhi that consisted of Rang Mahal, Moti Mahal, Diwan-i-Kham, and Diwan-i-khas (Paradise of Earth).

Also, build Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) at Agra and “Tomb of Jahangir”. He got a collection of precious stones, which included a Peacock Throne and Kohinoor Diamond.

During the Persian invasion, Nadir Shah took away Peacock Throne in 1739AD.

Jama Masjid

Jama Masjid was built by Shah Jahan in Delhi with White Marble and it is considered to be one of the largest mosques in the world.

Taj Mahal

It was built at Agra over the banks of river Yamuna, for his wife Mumtaz. It was Engineered by Ustad Isa, built at an estimated cost of ₹20 lakhs, and took 22 years to construct.

Arts during Shah Jahan

Fine arts such as painting, music, literature reached a height during his rule and he was a great patron of literature and fine arts.

During his rule, travelers who had visited are french men Bernier and Travernier, and Italian adventurer, Manucci who left good records about Shah Jahan’s rule.

Aurangazeb (1658-1707AD)

He was the last powerful and great Emperor and was the third son of Shah Jahan. He emerged successful among the four sons namely DaraShuko, Shahshuja, Murad.

Aurangzeb who was in Deccan, on hearing the news of his father’s illness rushed to Delhi and ascended the throne in 1658 AD after killing his three brothers and imprisoned his father.

Aurangazeb assumed the title “Alamgir”.

Religious Policy of Aurangazeb

He was a pious, orthodox Sunni Muslim and read Koran regularly. He hated Non-Muslims and also Shia Muslims.

He imposed Jizya Tax again on Non-Muslim and pilgrimage tax which was abolished earlier. Also, he dismissed Non-Muslims from the government services and as a result, he faced revolts from Rajputs, Satnamis, Marathas, Jats, and Sikhs.

Aurangzeb and sikh war

The Mughal Sikh relationship was not good after Jahangir. The Ninth Sikh Guru “Guru Tegh Bahadur” revolted against the anti-Hindu policy of Aurangzeb.

Aurangzeb was annoyed summoned the Guru to Delhi and compelled him to embrace Islam and Guru refused. Guru was tortured and killed, this made Sikhs angry. Guru Gobind Singh succeeded his father as the 10th guru.

He organized a military organization of Sikhs called Khalsa to fight against Mughals.

Aurangazeb and Marathas

Aurangzeb sent the Governor of Deccan Shaista Khan to suppress Shivaji. But Shaista Khan was attacked by Shivaji’s forces in his residence. Shaista Khan escaped.

Then Aurangzeb sent Jai Singh to attack Shivaji, and then peace was made with Shivaji. But Aurangzeb did not treat Shivaji well and later Shivaji was imprisoned.

Later Shivaji was escaped from the jail and involved in constant battle with Mughal forces.

Deccan Policy

He spent 25 years in the Deccan. Due to this, the administration has suffered a lot and the empire started to decline.

Due to constant wars, the treasury was emptied and enemies came from all the sides. In history, it was called the “Deccan Ulcer“, which weakened the Mughal empire.

Aurangzeb died in 1707 AD.

Administration of Mughal Empire

The emperor or Badshah had all the powers and he was the absolute ruler. He was regarded as “Shadow of God on Earth” and was assisted by the council of Ministers and the most important was called Wazir or Prime Minister.

For the provincial administration, the empire was divided into, the number of provinces known as “Subas” and each Suba was under Subedar or Governor.

The Subas were further divided into Sarkars and Sarkar into Parganas. The village was the lowest unit of provincial administration.

The main source of income for the state is land revenue. Raja Todar Mal was the famous revenue minister who helped Akbar as he had worked under Shershah.

Akbar made improvements over the Shershah revenue system. As Shershah was called “Forerunner of Akbar”. Akbar introduced the Zabti system and all the lands were measured with uniform standards of measurement.

One-third of the yield was fixed as the land tax and this could be paid either in cash or in kind. During the time of flood or famine tax remission was given to the farmers.

The officer was to be kind to the farmer by law.

The army was organized into infantry, artillery, cavalry, and elephantry. The cavalry was most important and Akbar introduced a new system called the “Mansabdari system”.

Mansab means “Rank” or “Place”. Eash Mansab was ranked based on the number of horsemen they had. The grade was given to them from 10 to 10,000 mansab.

The mansab was to help the empire during the war and in return, they were given a fixed salary.

The king was head of justice and he was assisted by Chief Qazi. Cases were tried as per Quranic Law and the punishments were severe.

Mutilation was an ordinary punishment.

Conclusion

Aurangazeb was mainly responsible for weakening the Mughal empire due to his strict religious policy and a long stay at the Deccan. He was a successful Musalman and as a king, he completely failed. The later Mughal were not strong enough to hold the empire together. Finally received death blow from East India Company (British).

Mughal Empire Tnpsc Pdf