Category: History

Lower Palaeolithic Culture

During the lower Palaeolithic times, Upright man is believed to have lived in the Indian Subcontinent.

To add more strength to this theory, we found the first Palaeolithic tools in Pallavaram in Chennai, India, identified by Robert Bruce Foote in 1863, and then many Palaeolithic sites were discovered in India’s subcontinent.

Lower Paleolithic sites in India

• Athirampakkam, Pallavaram (Tamil Nadu)

• Gudiyam, Hunsgi valley, Isampur (Karnataka)

• Bhimbetka (Madya Pradesh)

What are some Paleolithic tools?

The prehistoric study depends upon lithic tools.

Upright man-made enormous stone blocks, pebbles, and chipped tools out of other sturdy stones. Tools such as axes, cleavers, choppers are designed by flaking off the chips. They designed the tools which show the skill set of Prehuman. The tools were intended for hunting, butchering, skinning of animals, and processing food.

We divide the industries of Stone Age cultures into the early, middle, and late Acheulian industries. Early Acheulian tools include polyhedron, spheroids, hand axes, cleavers, and flake tools.

This tradition is absent in the Western Ghats, north-eastern India, and coastal areas, the reason might be Heavy rainfall in these areas and also lack of raw materials and Uncongenial conditions also prevented the occupation in the Western Ghats, north-eastern India, and coastal areas.

We find the Palaeolithic sites more in Central and in south-eastern India as these regions receive good rainfall, possess thick green cover, and are rich in resources. Some important areas where the Acheulian tools are found are Athirampakkam, Pallavaram, Gudiyam, Hunsgi valley, Isampur, and Bhimbetka.

Athirampakkam, Pallavaram (Tamil Nadu Formerly Madras, India) Hunsgi valley and Isampur(Karnataka, India) Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh, India)

Lower Paleolithic era

According to the latest research, the lower Palaeolithic began around two million years ago and this culture lasted up to 60,000 years ago.

Hominin and Animal Fossils of the Lower Palaeolithic

Hominin(ancestor of Humans) is rare in India and it is a very common fossil in Africa. The only known Hominin fossil of India is in Hathnora near Hoshangabad in Madhya Pradesh. The cranium is named Narmada human.

We found a partly preserved hominid skull cap in 1982 in a basal conglomerate deposit that represents Archaic Humans.

In Narmada valley, Elephas namadicus(Giant tusked Prehistoric elephant), Stegodon ganesa (a giant prehistoric elephant), Bos namadicus (wild cattle) and Equus namadicus (extinct great horse-like animal).

In Attirampakkam, Tamil Nadu –Teeth of Equus, evidence of water buffalo and nilgai and 17 animal hoof prints were found. These hoof prints suggest an open, wet landscape near the Chennai region during the prehistoric period.

The Way of Life of People in Lower Paleolithic

They fed on animals, nuts, fruits, and roots and lived in open-air, caves, valleys, and rock shelters as seen in Painting on the caves of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh and Gudiyam near Chennai. The upright man had a complex language system like Humans, and they might have used sounds or few words or sign language.

They were intelligent enough to select stones as raw materials and use hammer stones to flake the rocks and design tools.

Middle Palaeolithic Culture

Lithic technology and species of humans diverged after 4,00,000 years BP (Before Present). Upright man existed in this period and they modernized middle Palaeolithic tools.

Around 3,00,000 years ago modern humans emerged. H.D. Sankalia identified the Middle Palaeolithic phase in India on the Pravara river at Nevasa. Several Middle Palaeolithic sites have been identified and recently Athirampakkam is identified which dates back to 3.85-1.72 lakh year B.P.

Indian Middle Palaeolithic and African Middle Palaeolithic cultures are probably of the same period.

Industries and Tool Types of Middle Palaeolithic

The Flake industry was the most in the Middle Palaeolithic period, and tools such as scrapers, borers, and points were made. For wood and skin, they used working scrappers.

The other tools of this period are hand axes, cleavers, choppers, chopping tools, projectile point, shouldered point, knives, etc.

Chronology of the Middle Palaeolithic

Middle palaeolithic is between 3,85,000 and 40,000 BCE. While we associate the European middle stone with Neanderthals, in Africa it is Humans. In India, there is we found no hominin fossils.

Distribution of the Middle Palaeolithic

Narmada, Godavari, Krishna, Yamuna, and other river valleys are some of the Middle Palaeolithic sites.

Life and Culture of the Middle Palaeolithic

The people lived in caves, rocks, and in the open air. They were hunters and gatherers. The tools became less and decreased the use of hand axes regarding other tools.

Stone tool preparation production using core preparation techniques. The raw materials used were chert, chalcedony, quartz, and jasper.

Upper Palaeolithic Culture

The phase that followed the Middle Palaeolithic phase is Upper Palaeolithic. The Upper Palaeolithic phase is marked by the increased cognitive capability of humans and tool technology innovations.

About 300,000 years ago, modern humans who first developed in sub-Saharan Africa migrated to various parts of Asia around 60,000 years ago. These populations from Africa replaced the previous population and handled the Upper Palaeolithic culture in India.

Lithic Tools and Industries

The lithic industry of the Upper Palaeolithic period is based on blade and bone tool Technologies. Microliths (tiny stone tools) were introduced in the Upper Palaeolithic Period and they made these tools using different varieties of silica-rich raw Materials.

We have found bone tools and faunal remains in Kurnool caves in Andhra Pradesh.

Chronology

The Upper Palaeolithic culture is represented in India at several sites. A time bracket of c. 40,000 years to 10,000 years BP is suggested For this period.

Distribution

Some Upper Palaeolithic sites are Meralbhavi, Kurnool caves, Godavarikhani, Baghor I and Baghor III, Patne, etc. We find evidence of microliths and Hominin fossils in Sri Lanka.

Incised ostrich eggshell, shell, stone beads are found in Jwalapuram in Andhra Pradesh, Patne and Batadomba-Lena, and Fa Hein caves in Sri Lanka. They had used ostrich eggshells as beads were found in Patne dated to 25,000 BP and Bhimbetka.

Ways of Life and Main Characteristics

Evidence of art in the Upper Palaeolithic period appears as paintings. We have also found beads and ornaments of this period.

The lithic blade industry advanced in this period. Some green color paintings of Bhimbetka are dated to the Upper Palaeolithic period based on style and archaeological evidence.

Conclusion

This article is written for the topic ‘Lower paleolithic sites in India’ for Upsc and other state service exams. This article discussed Paleolithic sites in India, their Chronology, characteristics, and their distribution.

Economy of the Mughal Empire

The economy of Mughal empire was a forest-based agricultural economy. The craftsmen got their raw materials from the forests. The timbers from the forest were used by carpenters, woodcarvers, shipwrights, and lacquerware makers.

The wild silk was used by the reelers and Weavers. The iron miners and metal workers such as metalsmiths use Charcoal. There was a great relationship between manufacturing industries and forest products similar to the current generation.

Agriculture during the Mughal period

In rural areas, the rural population of different classes was involved in agriculture. Agriculture during the Mughal period was the chief activity in the economy. Almost a quarter of the population, are landless agricultural labourers who have no right to property.

• The village headman and Zamindars possessed large tracts of land on which they employed the labourers and paid them. The dominant mode of irrigation was well irrigation.
• In the book Ain-i-Akbari, there were mentions of the different crops cultivated during the Rabi and Kharif seasons.

Ain-i-Akbari

“Ain-i-Akbari” a persian word, that means Administration of Akbar. It is a 16th century document that had recorded the administration of Mughal Emperor, during the regime of Akbar was written by Abu’l Fazl ibn Mubarak.

• Pine was introduced in India in the 16th century. The two important crops namely Maize and Tobacco were introduced in the 17th century and then came the Chilli and groundnut.
• The Portuguese during this period developed grafted varieties of mangoes. The potato, tomato, and guava came later into India. Another important commercial crop during the Mughals was Indigo.

Indigo is primarily used as a dye for cotton yarn.

• Sericulture underwent spectacular growth in Bengal to the extent that it became the chief supplier of silk to world trade.

Agricultural Tax Administration

• As the farmers were compelled to pay the land tax they had to sell the surplus in the market. The land tax was a share of the actual product and was a major source of revenue for the Mughal ruling class.
• The administration determined the productivity of the land and assessed the tax based on the total measurement.
• Akbar promulgated the Zabt System (introduced by Todal Mal): money revenue rates were now fixed on each unit of area according to the crops cultivated.
• The schedules containing these rates for different localities applicable year after year were called Dasturs.

Urban Economy of Mughals

• The urban economy was based on the craft industry. The cotton textile industry employed large numbers of people as cotton carders, spinners, dyers, printers, and washers. Iron, copper, diamond mining, and gun making were other chief occupations.
• Kharkhanas were workshops where expensive craft products were produced.
• The royal Kharkhanas manufactured articles for the use of the royal family and nobility. The excess production of the artisans was diverted to the merchants and traders for local and distant markets.

Trade and Commerce

The political integration of the country with efficient maintenance of law and order ensured brisk trade and commerce.

The surplus was carried to different parts of the country through rivers, and through the roads on ox and camel-drawn carts. Banjaras were specialized traders who carried goods in large bulk over long distances.

• Bengal was the chief exporting centre of rice, sugar, muslin, silk, and food grains.
• The Coromandel coast was reputed for its textile production.
• Kashmiri shawls and carpets were distributed from Lahore which was an important centre of handicraft production. The movement of goods was facilitated by letters of credit called hundi.

The network of sarais enabled traders and merchants to travel to various places.

The traders came from all religious communities: Hindus, Muslims, and Jains.

• The Bohra Muslims of Gujarat, Marwaris of Rajasthan, Chettiars on the Coromandel Coast, and Muslims of Malabar were prominent trading communities.

Europeans controlled trade with West Asia and European countries and restricted the involvement of Indian traders. Moreover, the Mughal Empire, despite its vast resources and huge army, was not a naval power.

• They did not realize that they were living in an era of expanding maritime trade. Europeans imported spices, indigo, Bengal silk, muslin, calico, and chintz.
• In return, India obtained large quantities of silver and gold. Mughal silver coinage fuelled the demand for silver.

Reference

History of Medieval India by Satish Chandra

Religion during Mughal empire

Hinduism

Mughal empire religious tolerance is the one which in recent years gained momentum. Their period saw a continuing assertion of all basic elements in puranic traditions.

As it was tough to say that Hinduism was a Single body of doctrine. It has countless faiths and a number of practices and customs. Having said that, it had developed in Mutual interaction and expressed in large part in Sanskrit.

But different sections of Hinduism shared the same idiom and similar deities. The 16th and 17th centuries were the age of Vaishnavism.

Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas), a great supporter of the Rama Cult. He portrayed Rama as a God incarnate in his popular verses. The expression of bhakti was deeply emotional as the object of bhakti (devotion) was Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu.

The Bhakti movement made great strides during this period. A number of poets and saints emerged from various parts of the country and were critical of rituals and criticized the caste system. They use people’s common language for their expression of devotion rather than using Sanskrit.

The radical ideas, and the easy but catchy language often set to music made them popular among the masses. Some of the major religious figures like Vallabhacharya and his son Vitthalnath propagated a religion of grace and Surdas, an adherent to this sect, wrote Sur-Saravali in the local language.

Eknath and Tukaram were Bhakti poets from Maharashtra. The Dasakuta movement, a bhakti movement in Karnataka, popularised by Vyasaraya, turned out to be a lower-class movement.

The most important figure of the Bhakti movement was Kabir. He was said to be a weaver, Kabir propounded absolute monotheism, condemned image worship and rituals, and the caste system. His popular poetry was written in a simple language was spread orally across large parts of north India.

An interesting aspect of the Bhakti poets was that they came from so-called lower castes who practised various crafts and service occupations.

Kabir was a weaver, Ravidas, a worker in hides, Sain, was a barber, and Dadu, a cotton carder. The Satnami sect in Haryana credited its origin to Kabir and his teachings.

While Sanskrit and Persian were the languages of administration and intellectual activity, the vernacular languages demonstrated their literary vitality.

Sikhism

Sikhism originated as a popular monotheistic movement and evolved into one of the recognized religions of the world.

Guru Granth Sahib, the holy book of Sikhs, contained the sayings of Muslim saint Shaikh Farid and of Bhakti poets such as Namdev, Kabir, Sain, and Ravidas.

Guru Nanak believed in one God who was formless and omnipresent and he condemned image worship and religious rituals and he also stressed ethical conduct, kindness to all human beings and condemned the caste system.

Sufism

India was fertile soil for the prevalence of Sufism or Muslim mysticism that had its origin in Iran and it was accepted by the orthodox theologians as long as it fulfilled the obligations of the shariah.

Sufism played a key role in creating religious harmony.

Christianity

Along with the European traders came the Christian missionaries like Roberto De Nobili, Francis Xavier. The early missionaries were Catholics.

The first Lutheran missionaries under Danish patronage arrived in 1706 at Tranquebar and Ziegenbalg translated the New Testament of the Bible into Tamil in 1714, and soon the Old Testament as well.

This was the earliest translation of the Bible in any Indian language.

Mirasdari system

The Mirasdari system has once existed in the Madras Presidency. In the Madras Presidency, the Palegar system was present during the early 19th Century.

The Palegar were the landlords, who had judicial powers and also military powers. The British allowed them to collect the land taxes at 50% of the land’s annual produce.

In 1855, Sir Thomas Monroe, Governor of Madras abolished the Palegar system. He reduced the Palegar, Military, and Judicial power and made them mere tax collectors.

These tax collectors were called Mirasdars. Mirasdars were not necessarily the owners of the land.

The farmers were actual landowners called Mirasdari and had to pay regular taxes. The farmers who failed to pay the revenue, even due to famine, or disaster, etc were penalized and their lands were auctioned.

After 30 years of the Mirasdar system, it was replaced by a much friendlier Ryotwari system.

Neil statue satyagraha Upsc

It is the protest or satyagraha that took place in Madras Presidency in 1927 for the removal of Colonel James Neil statue which was erected at the Mount Road, Madras.

Who is James Neil?

He was a colonel of Madras Fusileers regiment and played an important role in putting down the Revolt of 1857. James Neil was called as “Butcher of Allahabad”.

He was killed during the siege of Lucknow. To remember him a statue was placed in Mount road, Madras.

Neil statue satyagraha

The Madras provincial committee which is part of the Indian National Congress and Madras Mahajana Sabha passed a resolution, demanding the removal of the statue.

They demonstrated agitation across Madras’s Presidency. The agitator all over Madras Presidency was led by S.N.Somayajulu.

Several agitations were imprisoned for a few weeks to rigorous imprisonment for years. Also, S.N.Somayajulu and Swaminatha Mudaliar were arrested.

Then after their arrest, K.Kamaraj led the agitation during September 1927. Mahatma Gandhi gave his support to Neil statue satyagraha during his visit to Madras.

The Madras Legislature also passed the resolution demanding the statue removal. The agitation was lost in fire due to the Simon Commission boycott.

Another important personality who participated in Neil statue satyagraha in 1927 is Ammapon alias Leelavathi who was 11 years old when she took part in it. She was later arrested and kept in a children’s home.

Reference

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Statue_Satyagraha
• Samacheer Kalvi Book

Battle of Plassey to Annexation of Punjab in 1849. They used several methods apart from war, like the Subsidiary Alliance and the doctrine of Lapse to expand and consolidate their rule in India.

Conquest of Bengal

In 1717, the East India company got Farman from Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar. This Farman Granted English East India Company, the freedom to export and import without paying tax in Bengal.

This Farman created a huge loss of revenue for the Nawab of Bengal and created conflicts with the East India Company.

This Royal Farman also gave East India Company other rights such as levying Heavy taxes on Indian Goods entering Calcutta (Bengal).

Also, the East India Company built Fortification, which created a rivalry between Nawab of Bengal and the East India Company.

The East India Company planned to overthrow the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulla by joining hands with several members inside the Nawabs court.

Example: Mir Jafar, Mir Bakshi, Manik Chand (officer in charge of Calcutta), Amir Chand (Big Banker in Bengal), and Khadim Khan (One of Commander in Nawab in Bengal).

Battle of Plassey (1757)

Nawab of Bengal and East India Company fought in the Battle of Plassey. Mir Jafar and Rai Durlabh took no part in the fighting and left the battlefield.

Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulla was captured and killed. Mir Jafar was made Nawab of Bengal. Then Mir Jafar was deposed in 1760, as he did not fulfil the demands of English.

Then Mir Qasim, son-in-law of Mir Jafar was made Nawab of Bengal.

Battle of Buxar (1764)

Mir Qasim too was not loyal to the East India Company. War broke out between East India Company and Mir Qasim.

Mir Qasim went to Awadh and formed an alliance with Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-Daula, and Mughal Emperor Shah Alam. This alliance fought together against the East India Company in1764 at Buxar.

East India Company won the battle of Buxar. The treaty of Allahabad was signed between the Mughal emperor Shah Alam-II and Rober Clive of East India Company, as a result of the Battle of Buxar on 22 October 1764.

Based on this East India Company was granted Diwani Rights. Diwani rights is the right to collect revenue in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. This victory gave East India Company as political masters of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.

Anglo-Mysore War

Next to English East India company turned toward Mysore state. Already there was a rivalry between Mysore, Nizam of Hyderabad, and Marathas.

This rivalry gave the English an opportunity to interfere and expand their political dominance. This rivalry resulted in four wars between the East India Company and the Mysore state called as Anglo Mysore Wars.

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69)

Haider Ali got some success against the British.

Second Anglo Mysore War(1780-1784)

Proved indecisive, ended with the treaty of Mangalore.

Third Anglo Mysore War(1789-1792)

Tipu Sultan invaded Travancore, which is an English Ally. Tipu Sultan was defeated in the Third Mysore War, forcing him to sign the Treaty of Seringapatam.

According to the treaty, Tipu had to surrender half of his kingdom to the East India Company and to its allies.

Fourth Anglo Mysore War(1799)

British Defeated Tipu Sultan. Tipu died while defending the capital. Half of Mysore Territory was divided between the British and Nizam

Conquest of Marathas

The conquest of the Maratha Empire was called as Anglo-Maratha War.

First Anglo Maratha War (1775-1782)

British were defeated and the Treaty of Salbai was signed.

British Won Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1806) and the third Anglo-Maratha war (1817-1818).

The reason for Maratha’s defeat is a mutual conflict between the Marathas chiefs.

The annexation of Awadh (1856)

Awadh was annexed to the English East India Company on the basis of ‘Misgovernance‘. English accused Nawab of Awadh, Wajid Ali Shah of Misgovernance.

Awadh was annexed by Lord Dalhousie in 1856. Nawab of Awadh, Wajid Ali Shah was the only ruler to be deposed on basis of ‘Misgovernance‘.

Sind Conquest (1843)

Since the 18th century, Sindh was being ruled by some Baluchi Chiefs collectively known as “Amir of Sind”.

General Charles Napier captured the Sindh province in 1843 through the battle of Miani.

Punjab Wars

With the Death of Ranjith Singh in 1839, the Conquest of Punjab was completed in 1849. There was two war fought between Sikhs and the English.

First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846)

British defeated Sikh troops and the treaty of Lahore was signed. To take revenge for the first Anglo-Sikh war, Sikhs created a number of revolts that lead to the second Anglo-Sikh war.

Sikhs were defeated, whole Punjab went under British Control. By this the conquest of India is complete.

Conclusion

The British were able to expand and consolidate their rule of India, main because India was not united. They were divided mainly based on religion, caste, linguistics, etc. The English signed several treaties, and military and trade alliances with many small, large, and independent states.

Also the British were very effective at infiltrating their internal affairs and gradually took control over the entire Indian subcontinent.