Category: Geography

The rocks debris is transferred down the slopes due to gravity. It also suggests that the debris is not influenced by Air, water, or Ice to move from place to place. But the debris moves the water, ice, and Air.

The mass movements also called slope movement or mass wasting are both slow and fast and it influences the shallow to deep columns of material and works creep, flows, slide and fall. The gravitational attraction applies its force to the bedrock and also the products of weathering.

The Weathering is not a basic requirement for Mass Movement but it greatly helps it. The un-weathered material is inactive for slope movements whereas weathered material is active for slope movement.

Mass Wasting does not come under Erosion as it does not have any influence due to geomorphic agents such as waves, currents, glaciers, water, wind, etc as it is only guided by gravity.

Materials over the slopes have their own resistance towards the disturbing forces and will accept or allow only when the forces are greater than their shearing resistance.

The weak unconsolidated rocks, thinly bedded rocks, faults, steeply sliding beds, vertical cliffs, perpendicular slopes, plentiful rainfall or snowfall, torrential showers, lack of vegetation are the factors that positively influence mass wasting.

Factors that Precede Mass Movements

• Removal of support from underneath to the rocks above by natural or artificial ways.
• The rise in inclination and height of slopes.
• Overloading by the increasing of material due to natural or unnatural ways.

• Overloading by huge rainfall, lubricating the slopes, and fullness(saturation).
• Removal of materials from the slope.
• By earthquakes, explosion, etc.

• Excessive Natural drainage.
• Heavy drawdown of water from the lakes, rivers leads to slow outflow of water from under the slopes or river banks
• Random removal of natural vegetation.

The forms of Mass Movement are Heave, flow, and slide and its types are Slow Movements and Rapid Movement.

Slow Movement

Creep

Creep is a type of slow movement which occurs on moderately steep and soil-covered slopes. This movement is extremely slow and gradual, only can be observed if viewed for a very long time.

Creep involves soil or rock debris. Due to this movement, the telephone lines lean downslope from their linear alignment, fence post lean, etc.

Types of Creep depends upon the type of material:

• Soil Creep
• Talus Creep

• Rock Creep
• Rock Glacier Creep

Solifluction

It includes gradual and slow, downslope flowing soil mass or fine-grained rock debris immersed or lubricated with water.

This process usually occurs in the moist temperate regions where the surface melting of deeply frozen ground and long-continued rain happens repeatedly.

When the upper parts get overfilled and while the lower parts are impenetrable to water percolation, flowing happens in the upper portions.

Rapid Movements

Rapid movements are most common in humid climatic regions and happen over gentle to steep hills/slopes.

Earthflow

The flow of water-saturated clayey or silty materials down low-angle terraces or hillsides is known as earthflow.

Earthflow – Sheet or stream of soil and rock materials saturated with water and flowing downslope by force of gravity and it shows that it is an intermediate stage between creep and mudflow.

Usually, the materials slump creating step-like terraces and leaving curves or bow-shaped called arcuate scarps at their heads and an accumulation bulge at the toe.

If the slopes are more perpendicular, even the bedrock primarily of soft sedimentary rocks such as shale or strongly weathered igneous rock may slide downslope.

Mudflow

Another type of rapid movement is Mudflow. In the inadequacy of vegetation cover and by massive rainfall, thick layers of weathered matter get soaked with water and both slowly or rapidly flow down by certain channels.

It seems like a river of mud in a valley. If the mudflows arise out of channels over the area at the base of a mountain or mountain range such as piedmont or plains, it can become very dangerous by engulfing or covering the roads, bridges, and houses.

Mudflows happen regularly on the slopes of exploding or newly exploded volcanoes. Volcanic ash, dust, and other particles transform into the mud because of heavy Showers and flow down as tongues or streams of mud producing large destruction to humans.

Debris Avalanche

Debris avalanche is another type of rapid mass movement, which is more a feature of humid areas with or without vegetation cover and happens in narrow tracks on steep slopes. This debris avalanche can be much quicker than the mudflow.

A debris avalanche is comparable to a snow avalanche.

Landslides

Landslides are nearly rapid movements and the material involved is relatively dry.

The size and shape of the loosened mass depend on the nature of discontinuities in the rock, the level of weathering, and the inclination of the hill.

Depending on the nature of the movement of materials different types are classified.

Slump

It is the slipping of one or several sections of rock debris with a backward rotation with regard to the slope where the movement occurs.

Debris slide

The rapid rolling or sliding of rock debris without backward rotation.

Debris fall

It is almost a free fall of rock debris from a vertical or overhanging surface.

Rock Slide

Sliding of a single rock, masses down bedding, joint or fault surfaces, and over steep slopes, is rapid and destructive. These slides happen as the planar collapses along discontinuities like bedding planes.

Rockfall

It is the free-falling of rock masses over any steep slope running off from the slope. It happens from the surface layers of the rock face, an event that separates it from the rock slide. It concerns the materials up to a certain depth.

Mass Movement in India

Debris avalanches and landslides are frequent in the Himalayas.

The reasons are the Himalayas are tectonically active.

• They are mostly made of sedimentary rocks and unconsolidated and semi consolidated deposits.
• The slopes are very steep.

Compared to the Himalayas, the Nilgiris bordering Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala, and the Western Ghats along the west coast are relatively tectonically stable and mostly made of very hard rocks. But still debris avalanches and landslides occur but not as frequently as in the Himalayas.

Weathering Definition

The earth materials such as rocks are subjected to the action of elements of weather and climate such as Ice, water, wind etc. These elements of weather act individually or together to affect earth materials such as rock and reduce them to fragments.

Altogether, It is defined as the decomposition of rocks by the natural process such as climate or weather by using water, ice, wind etc, through its action by mechanical disintegration and decomposition by chemical action.

Also, it is an in-situ or on-site process, that in is little or no motion takes place during the process of disintegration or decomposition of rocks. But sometimes little motion takes places due to the process of the transportation process.

The factor that supports weathering process is vegetation, topography, climatic, geological factors etc.

Climate plays an important part, as it affects the depth of the weathering mantle and it differs from one climate to another.

Types of Weathering

• Chemical
• Physical
• Biological

Chemical Weathering

Weathering by chemical action such as Solution, carbonation, hydration, oxidation, and reduction.

All these chemical action acts on rocks and this decomposes the rocks and reduce them to the fine state by water, air, and other acids individually or combined.

To speed up the chemical reaction water, air which includes oxygen, carbon-di-oxide along with heat needs to be present.

The carbon-di-oxide, in the underground, is increased by the decomposition of plants and animals, also its increase carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.

Solution

When something is dissolved in water or acids the dissolved contents with water or acid are called a solution.

The process involves the removal of solids in solution and depends on the solubility of a mineral in the weak acids or water.

Many solids disintegrate when it comes into contact with water and form as a suspension in water.

Water-soluble rock-forming minerals such as Nitrates, Sulphates, and potassium, etc are affected and easily leached out in rainy climates without leaving any residue and it gets accumulated in the dry regions.

Minerals such as Calcium Carbonate and Calcium Magnesium bicarbonate that are present in the limestone are soluble in the water containing carbonic acid.

This carbonic acid is formed when water comes in contact with Carbon dioxide. In process of Carbonic acid production is initiated by decaying organic matter along with soil is mixed in water.

Also, Sodium chloride or common salts also considered responsible for this process.

Carbonation

The reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate with minerals, that helps to break down feldspars and carbonate minerals is called Carbonation.

The water absorbs, the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and soil to form carbonic acid.

Carbonic acid is a weak acid, which affects Calcium carbonate and Magnesium Carbonate and gets dissolved and removed in the solution.

This leaves no residue and this results in cave formation.

Hydration

The addition of water to the chemicals, minerals, etc is called Hydration.

The mineral expands after Hydration. This expansion of minerals by water increases the volume of itself inside the rock.

Gypsum is formed when water is reacted with Calcium Sulphate. This gypsum is much more unstable than Calcium Sulphate.

This process of Gypsum conversion is reversible and is continued many times and creates fatigue in the rock which leads to disintegration.

The overlying material cracks after the process of repetition of wetting and drying of clay minerals which swell and contract during the process.

Rocks are fractured by the Salts in the pores spaces which undergo rapid and repeated hydration.

The volume of salts changes during hydration which helps in physical weathering by exfoliation and granular disintegration.

Oxidation and Reduction

When a mineral is combined with oxygen to form oxides or hydroxides it is called Oxidation in Weathering.

Oxidation happens almost everywhere there is the atmosphere. And also with oxygenated water.

Iron, manganese, sulphur, etc are mineral which is commonly get involved in the oxidation process.

The rock breaks down because of disturbances caused addition of oxygen.

Iron turns to red colour when it gets oxidized as Iron oxide, also Iron oxide is further oxidized and appears as brown or yellow.

The reduction takes place when the oxidized material is placed in the absence of oxygen.

The area, where the oxygen is absent, are usually below the water table. Example stagnant water areas, waterlogged ground, etc.

The Iron oxide which is red in color turn to greenish or bluish-grey upon reduction.

The chemical weathering such as Oxidation and reduction, carbonation, and Hydration are interrelated and are responsible for weathering process.

Physical Weathering Process

Physical Weathering is also called Mechanical Weathering, and its process depends on applied forces dues gravitation forces such as pressure, load and shearing stress, expansion forces because of temperature changes, crystal growth, wetting and drying cycles by water, animal activities, etc.

The above forces are responsible for rock fracture, as when these forces are applied at the surface and within earth materials.

The Thermal expansion and pressure release are responsible for most mechanical weathering processes.

The continued fatigue caused by repeated contraction and expansion due to thermal expansion and pressure release creates great damage to rocks, even though this process is small and slow.

Unloading and Expansion

Elimination of overlying rock load because of continued erosion produces vertical (upward) pressure release with the result that the upper layers of the rock expand creating a disintegration of rock blocks.

Fractures are developed nearly parallel to the ground surface.

In the regions of the curved or arched ground surface, arched or curved fractures or cracks tend to generate massive sheets or exfoliation(peeling) slabs of rocks.

Exfoliation sheets emerging from expansion because of unloading and pressure release may average several hundreds of meters in horizontal space.

The large and smooth rounded domes are known as Exfoliation domes is end result of this process.

Temperature Changes and Expansion

Different minerals in the rocks have different limits of expansion and contraction.

The mineral expands and pushes against its neighbour when the temperature is raised, and similarly, the mineral gets contracted when the temperature falls.

Due to these diurnal changes in the temperature, this inner change between the mineral grains of the surface layers of rocks takes place frequently.

This process is most powerful in the dry climate and in the high elevations wherever the diurnal temperature variations are severe.

These variations make the rock weak due to continued fatigue, even though these changes are very small.

The outer layers of rock have higher expansion than the rocks at the depth, which leads to the creation of stress within the rock and leads to heaving and fracturing parallel to the surface.

It is because of differential heating and the following expansion and contraction of surface layers and its following exfoliation from the surface ends in the smooth rounded surface in rocks.

In granites, smooth-surfaced and rounded small to big boulders called Tors are formed due to the exfoliation.

Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging

This kind of weathering happens when the Ice grows within the pores and cracks the rocks by repeated cycles of freezing and melting.

Frost Weathering has the highest impact at the higher elevations in the mid-latitudes. It is because in the mid-latitudes the freezing and melting happen repeatedly.

The Glacial areas are dominated by frost wedging daily as this process, the rate of freezing is vital.

Rapid freezing of water creates sudden expansion and high pressure.

It is the result of expansion that attacks the joints, cracks, and small intergranular fractures and makes it wider till the rocks break apart.

Salt Weathering

Because of the thermal action, crystallization, and hydration, the salt in the rocks expands.

Many salts such as calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium, barium, etc have the tendency to expand.

The thermal properties and temperature are the factor of expansion.

The salt expansion is favored in deserts as the surface temperature expands between 30 to 50° C.

The salt crystals in near-surface pores produce the splitting of single grains inside the rocks that ultimately fall off.

Granular foliation or granular disintegration is the result of the process of falling off of the individual grains.

The most effective salt weathering is Salt crystallization.

In the regions where there is wetting and drying happens repeatedly, salt crystal development is supported and the nearby grains are pushed aside.

Sodium chloride and gypsum crystal in the deserts, lift up overlying layers of the materials and the consequence is, polygonal cracks form all over the heaved surface.

With salt crystal growth, chalk cracks down readily and resulted in limestone, sandstone, shale, granite, gneiss, etc.

Biological Weathering

The weathering is caused by the physical changes because of the movement and growth of organisms.

Moisture and air are penetrated into the surface of rocks and exposing it to chemical and mechanical weathering by the Burrowing and wedging actions of the earthworms, termites, rodents, etc.

Human is also part of the biological weathering, as Human disturb the vegetation by cultivation after plowing.

The production of carbonic acids, and other such acids, humic are produced by the decaying plant and animals, which form solutions that help in chemical weathering.

Also, the roots of plants and trees put great pressure on the earth’s materials and result in mechanical weathering.

Conclusion

Weathering is responsible for the breaking of rocks, which in turn forms as soil. This also helps in erosion and mass movement. By that, vegetation is flourished.

The Landform changes are the result of erosion and mass wasting, which are aided by weathering.

It also helps concentration and enrichment of ores such as Iron, Copper, etc, which is good for the countries economy.

Volcanic Landforms

The landform formed due to volcanic eruptions is divided into extrusive and intrusive landforms. This is based on the magma, that cools within the crust or above the crust. Intrusive landforms are formed under the surface of the earth when the magma cools and gets solidified.

Extrusive landforms are formed when the magma flows out of the earth called Lava. This Lava flows and gets solidified. The landforms from the lava are called Extrusive landforms.

Intrusive Forms

The lava that is released during volcanic eruptions on cooling develops into igneous rocks. The cooling may take place either on reaching the surface or while the lava is still in the crustal portion. Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava, igneous rocks are classified as volcanic rocks (cooling at the surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling in the crust).

The lava that cools within the crustal portions assumes different forms. These forms are called intrusive forms.

Batholiths

A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust develops in the form of large domes. They appear on the surface only after the denudational processes remove the overlying materials. They cover large areas, and at times, assume depth that may be several km. These are granitic bodies. Batholiths are the cooled portion of magma chambers.

Lacoliths

These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected by a pipe-like conduit from below. It resembles the surface volcanic domes of the composite volcano, only these are located at deeper depths. It can be regarded as the localized source of lava that finds its way to the surface.

The Karnataka plateau is spotted with domal hills of granite rocks. Most of these, now exfoliated, are examples of laccoliths or batholiths. Lapolith, Phacolith, and Sills. As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may tend to move in a horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane.

It may get rested in different forms. In case it develops into a saucer shape, concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith.

A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of synclines or at the top of the anticline in the folded igneous country. Such wavy materials have a definite conduit to source beneath in the form of magma chambers (subsequently developed as batholiths).

These are called the phacoliths. The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet, depending on the thickness of the material. The thinner ones are called sheets while the thick horizontal deposits are called sills.

Dykes

When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land, it solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground. It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure. Such structures are called dykes. These are the most commonly found intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area. These are considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the development of the Deccan traps.

Extrusive Volcanic Landforms

Extrusive volcanic landforms, also known as volcanic surface features, are the result of volcanic activity that occurs on or near the Earth’s surface. Unlike their intrusive counterparts, which form beneath the surface, extrusive landforms are created when magma erupts from a volcano and solidifies into various shapes and structures upon exposure to air or water.

Key Features of Extrusive Volcanic Landforms:

Lava Flows

One of the most recognizable features of extrusive volcanic activity is lava flows. These molten rivers of magma travel down the slopes of a volcano, leaving behind a trail of solidified lava. The composition of the lava influences the texture and appearance of the flow, ranging from smooth pahoehoe to jagged ‘a’a flows.

Pyroclastic Deposits

Volcanic eruptions often eject a mixture of hot gases, ash, and volcanic rocks into the air. As these materials settle, they form pyroclastic deposits, creating diverse landforms such as ash cones, volcanic tuff rings, and ignimbrite plains.

Volcanic Cones

Extrusive volcanic cones are iconic landforms shaped by the accumulation of erupted materials around a vent. These cones can take various forms, including shield volcanoes with gentle slopes and stratovolcanoes with steeper, more conical profiles.

Craters and Calderas

The explosive release of volcanic gases can result in the formation of craters and calderas. Craters are typically smaller depressions around the vent, while calderas are large, collapsed features formed by the emptying of a magma chamber during a major eruption.

Geological Significance:

Extrusive volcanic landforms offer a window into the dynamic processes occurring beneath the Earth’s surface. By studying these features, geologists can gain insights into the composition of magma, the nature of volcanic eruptions, and the interactions between Earth’s lithosphere and asthenosphere. Additionally, the deposits left behind by volcanic activity contribute to the formation of fertile soils, making volcanic regions agriculturally productive.

Notable Examples of Extrusive Volcanic Landforms:

1. Mauna Loa, Hawaii:
   • As the largest shield volcano on Earth, Mauna Loa in Hawaii showcases the classic gentle slopes associated with shield volcanoes. Lava flows from Mauna Loa have extended into the ocean, creating new land and expanding the island of Hawaii over time.
2. Mount St. Helens, USA:
   • The eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 resulted in the formation of a horseshoe-shaped crater and the deposition of pyroclastic flows. This event provided valuable data for understanding volcanic hazards and recovery processes.
3. Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland:
   • The 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull not only disrupted air travel but also left behind spectacular lava flows and ash deposits. The eruption highlighted the interconnectedness of geologic processes and global systems.

Conservation and Exploration:

While extrusive volcanic landforms offer invaluable insights into Earth’s geologic history, they also require careful conservation. Human activities in volcanic regions, including tourism and infrastructure development, must be managed sustainably to preserve these natural wonders. Responsible exploration allows us to marvel at the beauty of these landscapes without compromising their integrity.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the dynamic interplay between the Earth’s internal forces and its surface has given rise to two mesmerizing categories of volcanic landforms: intrusive and extrusive. Each of these geological wonders tells a unique story of the planet’s history, showcasing the relentless processes that have shaped our landscapes over millions of years.

Intrusive volcanic landforms, concealed beneath the Earth’s surface, whisper tales of molten magma pushing through cracks and fissures, creating awe-inspiring structures such as batholiths, dikes, and sills. These formations, often hidden from the naked eye, serve as geological time capsules, preserving a record of the Earth’s evolution and the complex movements within its crust.

On the other hand, extrusive volcanic landforms boldly announce their presence on the Earth’s surface, sculpted by the fiery dance of lava, ash, and gases. From the gentle slopes of shield volcanoes to the dramatic calderas formed by explosive eruptions, these features stand as testaments to the raw power of nature. They not only contribute to the creation of fertile soils but also provide researchers with invaluable insights into volcanic processes and hazards.

Both intrusive and extrusive volcanic landforms play integral roles in our understanding of Earth’s geology. They offer glimpses into the planet’s past, present, and future, guiding scientific exploration and contributing to our knowledge of geological processes. While intrusive landforms often remain hidden from view, their significance lies in the unseen forces that shape the Earth’s crust. Extrusive landforms, on the other hand, showcase the immediate and visually striking results of volcanic activity, leaving landscapes marked by lava flows, craters, and pyroclastic deposits.

As we marvel at the diversity and beauty of these volcanic formations, it’s crucial to recognize the importance of responsible exploration and conservation. Human activities, including tourism and development, should be approached with care to ensure the preservation of these geological wonders. By understanding and appreciating both intrusive and extrusive volcanic landforms, we deepen our connection to the Earth’s dynamic nature and gain a profound appreciation for the intricate processes that continue to shape our planet. The study of these volcanic features not only enriches our scientific knowledge but also fosters a sense of wonder and respect for the geological forces that define the ever-changing landscape of our world.

Reference

• chapter-3.pmd (ncert.nic.in)

Rock cycle and Types of rocks

The rock cycle is a continuous process by which the old rocks are transformed into a new one. The changes are caused by various chemical and physical processes. There are three major types of rocks and they are igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks.

Rocks

The earth’s crust is made up of rocks and rocks are a mixture of one or more minerals. Rocks can be hard for example granite is hard and soft for example soapstone is soft.

Rocks are found in different colors. For example, Gabbro is black, quartzite is milky white. Also, rocks do not have a definite composition of minerals constituents.

The most common minerals found in the rocks are Feldspar and quartz.

The rocks are directly related to the landforms. This is studied in Petrology, which is studying the science of rocks.

On the basis of their formation, there are different rock types are classified and basically, there are three families of rocks.

1. Igneous Rocks
2. Sedimentary Rocks
3. Metamorphic Rocks

Igneous Rocks

It is formed out of magma and lava. Igneous rocks are called Primary rocks. In Latin language, Ignis means Fire. These rocks are formed when magma cools and solidifies.

This cooling process and solidification process happen in the earth’s crust or earth’s surface. Based on texture, the Igneous rocks are classified. Texture means the size and arrangement of grains and also the physical condition of rock.

If the magma is cooled slowly in the greater depths, the grain size will be large. Rapid cooling of Magma on the surface produces small and smooth grains. Intermediate cooling results in the intermediate size of grains.

Example of Igneous rock is Tuff, volcanic breccia, basalt, pegmatite, gabbro, Granite.

Sedimentary Rocks

It is derived from the Latin word Sedimentum which means settling. The rocks of various types are broken up into fragments of various sizes due to various denudation agents.

Such fragments are transported to exogenous agencies and deposited and these deposits turn rocks by compaction. This process is called Lithification.

The number of layers of varying thickness in sedimentary rocks like sandstone, shale, etc. Sedimentary are classified into three types are Mechanically formed, Organically formed, Chemically formed.

Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks are Sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess, etc. Organically formed sedimentary rocks are geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal, etc

Chemically formed sedimentary rocks are chert, limestone, halite, potash, etc.

Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic means ‘change of form‘. The metamorphic are rocks are formed under the joint action of Pressure, Temperature, and Volume (PVT) changes.

When the rocks are subject to great pressure by the tectonic process or magma in molten states comes in contact with crustal rocks, the underlying rocks applied with great pressure by the overlying rocks, Metamorphism occurs.

“Metamorphism is a manner by which previously consolidated rocks are reduced to re-crystallization and rearrangement within original rocks.“

A type of metamorphism is Dynamic Metamorphism, which means without any remarkable chemical changes there occurs a mechanical disruption and change of the original minerals within rocks due to breaking and crushing.

Another type of metamorphism is thermal metamorphism and it is classified into two types and they are Contact Metamorphism and Regional Metamorphism.

The rocks come into the contact with hot intruding molten lava or magma and recrystallize under high temperature is called Contact Metamorphism.

The rock materials recrystallize due to the deformation created by tectonics shearing with high temperature or pressure or both. This is Regional metamorphism.

Foliation or lineation is the term used to mention the arrangement of minerals or grains in metamorphic rocks.

Sometimes minerals or materials of various groups are ordered into alternating slim to dense layers looking in light and dark colors, such a formation in metamorphic rocks is called Banding, and rocks exhibiting banding is called Banded rocks.

Metamorphic rocks are divided into two groups, foliated rocks, and non-foliated rocks.

Examples of metamorphic rocks are Gneissoid, granite, syenite, slate, schist, marble, quartzite, etc.

Rocks Cycle

Rocks do not remain the same, they transform this called Rock Cycle. Igneous rocks are the primary rocks, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks are other forms of these primary rocks.

The igneous and metamorphic rocks are can be fragmented and turn into sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks also fragment further to become new sedimentary rocks.

The crustal rocks such as Metamorphic and Igneous rocks can sub-duct due to various movement, moves slowly to the mantle and due to high temperature it gets molten down to lava and the rocks cycle continues.

FAQ

Why igneous rocks are called primary rocks?

• It is called primary rock because these rocks are formed from the material that comes from below the earth.

• That is these rocks are formed from the solidification of Magma.

• Also Igneous rock which directly or indirectly provide materials for the formation of the other types of rocks.

• Therefor Igneous rocks are also called Mother rocks or Primary rocks.

References

• https://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/kegy205.pdf