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1857 Revolt Tnpsc

The Revolt of 1857: A Seed of Indian Nationalism

The 1857 Revolt sowed the seeds of Indian nationalism, which lay dormant in the subconscious of the Indian people. It started the movement which became a continuous struggle against British rule, lasting until India achieved independence in 1947.

Hence, the nature, character, and causes of this Great Revolt of 1857 should be studied to understand the events that followed in modern Indian history.

📚 Tip: If you need to know more about the Revolt and Modern Indian History for UPSC and TNPSC preparation, kindly check the book mentioned below.

Nature of the Revolt

The historical writings of British scholars underplayed the character of the Revolt of 1857. Sir John Lawrence believed it was purely a military outbreak. In contrast, Indian scholars, such as Vir Savarkar, hailed it as the First War of Indian Independence.

Historians R.C. Majumdar and S.N. Sen have different perspectives. S.N. Sen saw it as part of the struggle for independence, while R.C. Majumdar called earlier incidents “isolated,” culminating in the Great Revolt of 1857.

Causes of the Revolt

Political Causes

The discontent and disaffection manifested in the form of revolts against the British Government were not confined to the ruling chiefs and royal families alone. On the contrary, British rule was disliked by the people at large in any region when it was newly introduced. Anti-British feelings were particularly strong in those regions like Burma, Assam, Coorg, Sind, and the Punjab, which were unjustly annexed to the British Empire. The Doctrine of Lapse, particularly its practical application by Lord Dalhousie, produced grave discontent and alarm among the native princes, who were directly affected.

Economic Causes

The huge drain of wealth, the destruction of its industry, and increasing land revenue had become the common features of the latter half of the eighteenth century. The East India Company, after attaining political power, used it to fund the growth of British trade and commerce at the cost of the Indians. The British damaged the Indian trade and manufacture by imposing a high tariff in Britain against Indian goods, and by encouraging all means, the import of British goods to India. In England, the ruin of the old handloom weavers was accompanied by the growth of the machine industry. But in India, the ruin of the millions of artisans and craftsmen was not accompanied by any alternative growth of new industrial forms. A new plantation system introduced in the year 1833 resulted in incalculable misery for the Indian peasants. This was the result of permitting Englishmen to acquire land plantations in India. The hard-hit were the peasants on the indigo plantations in Bengal and Bihar.

Social Causes

The Englishmen showed an arrogant attitude towards the Indians. Indiscriminate assaults on Indians by Englishmen became quite common. Also, a general alarm was raised among the Hindus and Muslims by the activities of the Christian missionaries. The educational institutions established by the missionaries inculcated Western education and culture in the place of oriental learning. The native population felt that they were losing their social identity.

Military Causes

Discontent against the British Raj was widely prevalent among the Indian soldiers in the British army. The Indian sepoys in the British Indian army nursed a sense of strong resentment at their low salary and poor prospects of promotion. The British military officers at times showed the least respect to the social values and religious sentiments of Indian sepoys in the army. Thus, although generally faithful to their masters, the sepoys were provoked to revolt. The Vellore mutiny of 1806, a precursor to the 1857 Great Revolt, was the outcome of such tendencies on the part of the military authorities. Another important cause of the sepoys’ dissatisfaction was the order that abolished the foreign allowance or batta when they served in foreign territories. Thus, the discontent was widespread, and there was an undercurrent before the volcanic situation of 1857. All thatwas needed was only a spark to set it afire.

The Beginning of the Revolt

The 1857 Revolt was sparked off by the episode of the greased cartridges. The new Enfield rifle had been introduced for the first time in the Indian army. Its cartridges had a greased paper cover whose end had to be bitten off before the cartridge was loaded into the rifle. The grease was composed of fat taken from beef and pork. The religious feelings of the Hindu and Muslim sepoys were terribly wounded. The sepoys believed that the government was deliberately trying to destroy their religious and cultural identity. Hence, they raised the banner of revolt. The events that led to the Revolt began on 29 March 1857 at Barrackpore. Mangal Pandey (a sepoy) refused to use the greased cartridges and single-handedly attacked and killed his officer. Mangal Pandey was hanged. The regiment to which he belonged was disbanded, and sepoys guilty of rebellion were punished. The British, instead of diffusing the explosive situation, paved the way for a mighty crisis by the above act. A chain reaction was set in motion. At Meerut in May 1857, 85 sepoys of the 3rd Cavalry regiment were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment for refusing to use the greased cartridges. Therefore, on 10 May, the sepoys broke out in open rebellion, shot their officers, released their fellow sepoys, and headed towards Delhi. General Hewitt, the officer commanding at Meerut, was helpless to prevent the army’s march. The next morning the rebellious army reached Delhi. The city of Delhi fell into the hands of the rebellious soldiers on 12 May 1857. Lieutenant Willtashby, the officer in charge of Delhi, could not prevent the mutineers. Soon, the mutineers proclaimed the aged nominal king, Bahadur Shah II of the Mughal dynasty, as the Emperor of India. Very soon, the rebellion spread throughout northern and central India at Lucknow, Allahabad, Kanpur, Banares, in parts of Bihar, Jhansi, and other places.

Major Centers of the Revolt

Delhi

The leadership at Delhi was nominally in the hands of Bahadur Shah, but the real control was exercised by General Bakht Khan. On the side of the British, the combined effort of Nicholson, Wilson, Baird Smith, and Neville Chamberlain enabled the recapture of Delhi by September 1857. In Delhi, Emperor Bahadur Shah II was arrested and deported to Rangoon, where he remained in exile till he died in 1862.

Kanpur

At Kanpur, the revolt was led by Nana Saheb, the adopted son of Baji Rao II, the last Peshwa. Nana Saheb expelled the English from Kanpur with the help of the sepoys and proclaimed himself the Peshwa. Nana Saheb, in his efforts against the British, was ably supported by two of his lieutenants. One was Tantia Tope, the other was Azimullah. Sir Hugh Wheeler, the commander of the British garrison at Kanpur, surrendered on 27 June 1857. But, soon Kanpur was recaptured by the British commander Sir Colin Campbell.

Lucknow

The principal person responsible for the revolt in Lucknow was the Begum of Oudh. With the assistance of the sepoys, the zamindars, and peasants, the Begum organised an all-out attack on the British. Henry Lawrence, the chief commissioner, tried to defend the British. Lawrence was killed in a bomb blast during the fight. The final relief for the British forces in Lucknow came in the form of Sir Colin Campbell, who suppressed the revolt.

Jhansi

Rani Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi, the widowed queen of Gangadhar Rao, played a heroic role in this revolt. Rani Lakshmi Bai was affected by Dalhousie’s Doctrine of Lapse, and was joined by Tantia Tope. The combined efforts of Rani and Tantia Tope saw the capture of Gwalior. Meanwhile, Sir Hugh Rose defeated Tantia Tope and stormed Jhansi on 3 April 1858. He then captured Gwalior. The Rani of Jhansi died a soldier’s death on 17 June 1858. Tantia Tope was captured and hanged on charges of rebellion and murder in the massacre of Kanpur.

Bihar

Kunwar Singh, a ruined and discontented zamindar of Jagdishpur near Oudh, was the chief organiser of the revolt in Bihar. He fought the British in Bihar. Kunwar Singh sustained a fatal wound in the battle and died on 27 April 1858 at Jagdishpur. Ultimately, the 1857 Revolt came to an end with the victory of the British. Viceroy Canning proclaimed peace throughout India.

Causes for the Failure of the Revolt

The first and foremost cause was that the Revolt failed to embrace the whole of India. Different sections of society, such as moneylenders, merchants, and modern educated Indians, were actually against the Revolt. The lack of interest shown by the intellectuals in the movement was a serious setback. The resources of the British Empire were far superior to those of the rebels. Similarly, the insurgents lacked a carefully concerted general plan or a strong central organisation to plan the movements of the army and oversee their strategy. On the other hand, the British possessed better equipment. In addition, the British were aided by new scientific inventions such as the telegraph system and postal communications. This enabled the British to keep in touch with all parts of the country and to manoeuvre their troops according to their needs. All the said factors combined to cause the defeat of the rebels of the 1857 Revolt and led to the victory for the British.

Significance and Effects of the Mutiny

The Revolt of 1857, though completely suppressed, had shaken the very foundations of British rule in India, for the simple reason that the Revolt exhibited the popular character. It brought together the disgruntled sections of society to rise against British rule. The common people rose up in arms, often fighting with spears and axes, bows and arrows, lathis and scythes, and crude muskets. However, this civilian revolt was not universal but sporadic and inconsistent. Nevertheless, it added a new dimension to the character of the 1857 Revolt. Another significant aspect of the 1857 Revolt was the Hindu-Muslim unity. As far as the effects of the Revolt are concerned, it brought about fundamental changes in the character of Indian administration, which was transferred from the East India Company to the Crown by the Queen’s Proclamation of 1 November 1858. At the same time, the Governor-General received the new title of Viceroy. Lord Canning had the unique opportunity to become the Governor-General as well as the first Viceroy according to the Act of 1858. Lord Canning proclaimed the new Government at Allahabad on 1 November 1858 in accordance with the Queen’s Proclamation. The latter has been called the Magna Carta of the Indian people; it disclaimed any extension of territory, promised religious toleration, guaranteed the rights of Indian princes, and pledged equal treatment to her subjects, Indians and Europeans. The Revolt of 1857 ended an era and sowed the seeds of a new one. The year 1857 is a great divide between the two landmarks in Indian history. One was that of British paramountcy in the first half, and the other was that of the growth of Indian nationalism in the second half of the nineteenth century.

1857 Revolt – Complete UPSC Reference Table

Category	Details
Nature of the Revolt	British: Military mutiny (Sir John Lawrence) Indian: First War of Independence (V.D. Savarkar) R.C. Majumdar: Isolated incidents S.N. Sen: Part of freedom struggle
Date & Spark Point	10 May 1857 at Meerut; sparked by greased cartridge issue
Immediate Cause	Use of Enfield rifle cartridges greased with cow and pig fat – religiously offensive
Political Causes	Annexations (e.g., Awadh, Punjab), Doctrine of Lapse (Dalhousie), loss of royal status
Economic Causes	Exploitation by East India Company, destruction of industry, high land taxes, Indigo farming crisis
Social Causes	Racial arrogance, missionary activity, fear of losing cultural identity
Military Causes	Low salary, discrimination, abolition of foreign service allowance, disrespect for religion
Key Events & Timeline	29 Mar: Mangal Pandey 10 May: Meerut uprising 12 May: Delhi captured 27 June: Wheeler surrenders at Kanpur
Major Centers & Leaders	Delhi: Bahadur Shah II, Gen. Bakht Khan Kanpur: Nana Saheb, Tantia Tope Lucknow: Begum Hazrat Mahal Jhansi: Rani Lakshmi Bai Bihar: Kunwar Singh
Key British Officers	Hugh Rose, Colin Campbell, John Nicholson, Wilson, Baird Smith
End of Revolt	1858 – British victory; Bahadur Shah II exiled to Rangoon
Reasons for Failure	Lack of unity & planning, limited geographic spread, better British arms, telegraph, no leadership
Significance	Ended Company rule, led to Crown rule (Queen’s Proclamation, 1858), start of Indian nationalism
Acts After Revolt	Government of India Act 1858; Queen’s Proclamation promised equality, religious freedom
Historical Importance	Turning point in Indian history; beginning of nationalist phase in late 19th century

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NCERT History syllabus for UPSC

SYLLABUS	TOPICS
Stone Age	Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic – Occupation, Tools, Pottery, Settlements, Lifestyle, Prehistoric Art (Cave paintings). Chalcolithic – Early towns and settlements, Farming Cultures (Ahar, Malwa, Jorwe etc) , Pottery (Ochre colored), Dwelling and Burial practices
Indus Valley Civilization- Bronze Age	Origin, Geographical Extent, Cities and towns, Urban planning, Important structures, Agriculture, Trade and economy, Political organisation, Religious practices- Nature and animal worship , Crafts and Pottery, Seals , Bronze and terracotta figurines, Decline and its causes.
Early Vedic Age	Advent of Aryans, Family and kinship – Tribal , Rig Veda, Social Practices, Tribal Polity and administration. Occupation and economy, Religion and Vedic Gods.
Later Vedic Age	Transition to Later Vedic Age , Developments in Political Organisation and Economy, Social Order ( Rise of Gotra system, Ashramas, Caste ), Differences between Rig Vedic and Later Vedic society, Use of Iron- PGW Iron Phase, Vedas and Upanishads, Religion and rituals. Heterodox Philosophical systems.
Mahajanapadas / Age of Buddha	(a) Rise of State polity, 2nd Urbanisation- Rise of new cities, Magadhan Empire – Administration & Economy , Republican States , Society and Religion , Iranian & Macedonian invasion. (b) Jainism and Buddhism- Birth of Mahavira / Buddha, Orgin and Spread, Doctrines and Principles, Monastic establishments (Basadis/ Viharas), Jain & Buddhist Councils, Art and Architecture , Literature.
Mauryan Empire	Rise of the Mauryan dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya, Administation, bureaucracy, taxation and polity, Chanakya’s Arthashastra. Ashoka – Inscriptions (minor and major rock edicts ) , Art and Architechure, Ashoka’s Dhamma and patronage of Buddhism.
Post Mauryan Age	(a) Sungas and Kanwas. (b) Central Asian Invasions – Indo Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, Kushans. Their Impact- Money Economy, expansion in trade, silk route. Influx of foreign elements in polity, army, crafts. Religious Devilments- Mahayana Buddhism, Gandhara and Mathura school of art, Science & Technology, Literature. (c) Satavahanas- Polity and administration, Economy, Social Organisation , Religious Patronage, Art and Architecture.

Megaliths and Sangam Age	Megalithic culture- burials, pottery, tools, settlements. Sangam Age- Tamil Sangam literature , Chera, Chola and Pandyas, Evolution of early Tamil polity and society from Sangam Literature.
Guptan Age	Rise of the Guptas, Expansion and Administration, Trade and economy, Societal practices and status of women, Religion, Art and Architecture, Developments in Science and technology. Religious Literature- Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas. Secular Works- Works of Court poets like Kalidasa, Bhasa etc Scientific works of Aryabhata, Varahamihra etc. Decline of Guptas.
Post Guptas	Harshavardhana- Polity, Land Grants and its impact, Social conditions, Harsha and Buddhism, Hiuen Tsang visit and account of India. Literature- Works of Bhana & Harsha.
Pallavas & Chalukyas in South	Pallavas and Chalukyas in South. Administration and economy. Chalukya art, Pallava art and Literary works

Medieval India

Chola Empire	The rise of Cholas, Administration and taxation, Territorial Expansion, Society and Culture. Chola Art & Architecture.
Ghaznavid and Turkish Invasions	Coming of Ghaznavids, Status of Rajput States and reasons for defeat, Ghurid invasion . Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind.
Delhi Sultanate	Nature of the State, Administration of Delhi Sultanate, State Departments and various posts, Military reforms. Land revenue and taxation, local and village administration, Cities and towns. Trade and crafts, Agriculture, export & imports, Economic and social life. Religion and customs under the Sultanate, Scientific advancements. Art and Architecture of Delhi Sultanate, Construction and rise of new Cities. Accounts of foreign travellers like Ibn Batutta, Court poets and Historians like Amir Khusrau, Barauni etc. The Mamluks (1206-1290) – Qutb-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish – Chagalani system, Raziya Sultana, Balban- Policies and administration, Mongol menace, Khaljis (1290-1320), The Tughlaqs(1320-1414), The Sayyid dynasty (1414- 1451), The Lodis( 1451-1526)
Vijayanagara and Bahmini Kingdom	Rise of Vijayanagara State, Harihara and Bukkaraya, Political Organisation – Nayaka System, Social life and Economy, Krishna Devaraya- administration and foreign policy, Literary works , Architechure of Vijajanagara- Structures of Hampi. Visit of Foreign travellers- Nicolo Conti, Abdul Razack, Nuniz, Barbossa. Bahmini Kingdom- Polity & Internal Conflicts, Administration and Economy. Conflict with Vijayanagara- Battle of Talikotta , Rise of Deccani culture, Architechure of Bahminis, Disintegration of Bahminis. Annexation by Mughal empire. Arrival of Portuguese, Impact on Indian Politics, trade and economy. Relationship with Indian rulers.
Religious and Cultural Developments in India( 1200- 1500 CE)	Rise of concept of Bhakti, Vaishnavites and Saiviites in South (Alwars and Nayanmars), Shankaracharya and Ramanuja, Bhakthi movements in North India and Maharashtra . Saguna and Nirguna schools, Bhakthi Saints and Poets, Bhakti Literature, Impact on Social life. Sufi movements- Basic concept, 12 orders or Silsilahs, Sufi saints- Nizamuddin Auliya, Moinuddin Chisti, Baba Farid. Sufi impact on Indian arts, culture and society.
Mughal Empire	1526-1555 Babar(1526-1530), First Battle of Panipat, Battle of Kanwa , Babar Nama. Humayun (1530- 1535, 1555-56) Suri dynasty (1535- 1555) – SherShah’s reign, Administration and land revenue policy , Law & Order, Economic Reforms. 1556-1707 Akbar’s Reign (1556-1605) – Second battle of Panipat, Early expansion under Bairam khan, Administration and Polity, Mughal army, Land revenue system of TodarMal, Mansabdari System and political organisation, Akbar’s Rajput Policy, Religious tolerance and social reforms. Economic and Social Conditions- City and village life, Zamindars and peasantry, Religious ideas, status of women. Arabic and Persian Literature, Account of court Historians and Poets, Foreign accounts of travellers on Mughal society and polity. Mughal Arts- Miniature Painting, Mughal Architecture and Monuments. Traditional crafts, Export and imports, Science and Technology. Disintegration of Mughal Empire (1707-1856) Deccan Conquests of Aurangazeb- Impact. Causes of disintegration.
Rise of Maratha	Maratha expansion under Shivaji, Maratha army and administration, Chauth and Sardeshmukhi, Conflict with Mughals and other Deccan powers
Indian Art & Architecture	IVC- Various sites associated with Architecture. Their significance and location. Sculptures, figurines & seals. Mauryan Architecture- Ashokan Pillars, Stupas, Cave Architecture- Chaitiyas & Viharas, Sculptures. Post Mauryan – Features of three schools of art- Gandhara, Mathura, Amaravati. Rock cut caves. Gupta period- Cave Architecture- Ajanta, Ellora, Bagh, Nasik etc Temple Architecture – Nagara Style. Temple Architecture in South India -Pallava style, Dravidian Style- Chola temples, Vesara Style, Nayaka school, Hoysala Style, Pala school of temples. Medieval / Islamic Architecture- Delhi Sultanate- Different characteristics and introduction of new features of various dynasties- The Mamluks, Khiljis, Lodhis. Mughal Architecture – Features and important structures. Provincial Styles- Bengal, Malwa, Rajputana.
Indian Paintings	Prehistoric Paintings Cave paintings in Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chacolithic periods. Their location, colors, themes. Mural Paintings- Ajanta, Ellora, Sittanavasal etc. Miniature paintings – Mughal Era. Regional Paintings Different Schools- Rajasthani, Pahari, Kishangarh, Bundi, Kangra, Basholi, Tanjore. Folk Paintings Madhubani, Pattachitra, Kalighat,Pattua, Kalamkari, Warli etc.
Indian Music	Classical Music- Hindustani and Carnatic Forms- Their features and styles. Folk Music- Pandwani, Lavani,Dandiya,Wanawan, Khonjom Parwa etc.
Dance Forms	8 Classical dance forms- Bharatanatyam, Kuchipudi, Mohiniyattam, Odissi, Kathakali, Sattriya, Manipuri, Kathak. Folk dances- Chauu, Raslila,Garba,Dandiya,Ghoomar,Padayani etc
Indian Theatre	Ritual theatres of different traditions like Ankianat, Ramlila. Entertainment theatre forms- Tamasha, Nautanki, Swang etc.
Indian Puppetry	String Puppets- Kathputli, Bommalatam. Shadow Puppets[1]RavanChayya, Togalu Gombayetta. Rod puppets-Putul Nautch, Yampuri.
Fairs & Festivals	Important Tribal and Northeast festivals. Ex- Losar, Wangala, Bihu.
Indian Literature	Ancient India – Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Puranas. Sanskrit Literature – Prose, Drama & Poetry – Works of court poets like Kalidasa, Sudraka, Bhasa of Ancient , Medival India. Pali & Prakrit Literature Jain texts- Angas, Upangas. Buddhist – Canonical (Tripitakas) and non-canonical (Jatakas). Persian/ Arabic Literature – Works of court historians of Delhi Sultanate, Mughals, Bahminis. Ex-Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl, Tarikh-i-Firozshahi by Barauni
Modern India History
Before revolt	Advent of Europeans – Portuguese, French, Dutch, English and Danish – Anglo-French wars and carnatic wars Weak Mughal Rulers post Aurangazeb – Rise of Regional Kingdoms- Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh Conquest and Establishment of British Empire – Battle of Plassey, Buxar – Mysore , Maratha, Sikh, Afghan wars – Innovative Administrative polices – Ringfence, subsidiary alliance and doctrine of lapse
Revolt of 1857	Causes, spread , nature and consequences Important personalities and area of revolt
Socio Religious Movements	Important associations and leader
Modern Nationalism	Pre-INC organizations, Newspapers Factors for growth of Modern Nationalism
INC- Moderate Phase	Foundation of INC Approach, Ideology, Important leaders and contributions – economic criticism of British Rule
Extremist Phase	Rise of extremism, Partition of Bengal Anti- Partition, Swadeshi Movement Surat Split Minto – Morley reforms
Revolutionary Activities	Bengal, Maharastra, Punjab, Abroad Imp leaders and activities
World events and Nationalist response	World War I and response Home Rule Movement Lucknow Pact Russian Revolution and impact Montague Chelmsford Reforms
Non cooperation Movement	Rowlatt Act, Jallianwala bagh massacre Khilafat movement NCM Participation of masses and withdrawal
Phase in between NCM and CDM	Swarajists and No-changers Emergence of socialist, Marxist ideas Peasant , Trade and caste movements Revolutionary Activity- II
Civil Disobedience Movement	Run up to CDM – Simon Commission – Nehru Report and response – Lahore session and Poorna Swaraj Spread of CDM Govt Response- Gandhi- Irwin Pact Round Table Conferences (RTC) Communal Award- Poona Pact Gandhi Harijan Campaign
Post CDM	Nationalist Response to WW II Bose- Gandhi- Nehru Ideologies August offer, Individual Satyagraha, Cripps Mission Quit India Movement- Resolution and Mass participation Wavell Plan INA (1st phase and Bose arrival), trials Elections- Congress and League’s performance Cabinet Mission Plan Atlee Statement, Mountbatten plan India Independence Act and Partition India – Post Independence
1939- 1947	Nationalist Response to WW II Bose- Gandhi- Nehru Ideologies August offer, Individual Satyagraha, Cripps Mission Quit India Movement- Resolution and Mass participation Wavell Plan INA (1st phase and Bose arrival), trials Elections- Congress and League’s performance Cabinet Mission Plan Atlee Statement, Mountbatten plan India Independence Act and Partition India – Post Independence

Unveiling the Elegance: Exploring Ancient Chola Artistic Expressions

Chola architecture is the period of the imperial Cholas who ruled Southern India, most parts of the current Tamil Nadu, a state of India from the period 850 to 1250 CE. This period of Cholas was the age of continuous innovation in the field of architecture and art.

The Chola architecture was created utilizing the enormous wealth gained through their aggressive conquest in everlasting wars against several kingdoms in the southeast Asian countries.

The Chola architecture includes everlasting stone temples and exquisite bronze sculptures.

Dravidian Style

The Dravidian style of art and architecture reached its perfection under the Cholas. They built enormous temples and the chief feature of the Chola art and architecture is the vimana.

The early temples were found at Narthamalai and Kodumbalur in Pudukottai district and at Srinivasanallur in Tiruchirappalli district. During the period 1009 of Rajaraja Chola, the Temple building was prolific. Over a hundred important temples of Chola are still in a good state and many are still active shrines.

Chola temples are bigger in scale than anything built by their predecessors. The Chola temple’s pyramidal multi-storeyed vimana rises up to 70 meters.

Brihadiswara Temple

The Big Temple at Tanjore built by Rajaraja I is a masterpiece of South Indian art and architecture. It consists of the Vimana, Ardhamandapa, Mahamandapa, and a large pavilion in the front known as the Nandimandapa.

This magnificent Shiva temple of Tanjore is called Rajarajeswara or Brihadiswara Temple. This temple was commissioned and completed by Rajaraja Chola (Rajaraja-I) around 1009.

Brihadiswara Temple is the largest and tallest of all temples in India. Its ‘vimana’ rises to a massive 70 meters and is topped by a monolithic ‘shikhara‘ that is an octagonal dome-shaped ‘stupika‘. It is in this temple, two large gopuras (gateway towers) were noticed for the first time.

There are huge Nandi figures dotting the corners of the shikhara, and kalasha itself. Also, there are hundreds of stucco figures decorating the vimana, it was possibly added during the Maratha Period and these figures do not belong to the Chola Period.

In this temple, the main deity is Lord Shiva and there is a huge lingam set in a two-storeyed sanctum its wall was painted with mythological narratives and also with sculptures and murals.

Chola art and architecture Upsc - Brihadiswara Temple — Chola art and architecture – Brihadiswara Temple By Nittavinoda – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=68113622

Other Temples

Another notable contribution made by the Cholas to temple architecture is the Siva temple at Gangaikondacholapuram built by Rajendra I.

The Airavathesvara temple at Darasuram in Tanjore District and the Kampaharesvara temple at Tribhuvanam are examples of later Chola temples.

The Cholas also made rich contributions to the art of sculpture. The walls of the Chola temples such as the Tanjore and Gangaikondacholapuram temples contain numerous icons of large size with fine execution.

Gangaikondacholapuram Temple By Supraja kannan – Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=63249693

Bronze statues of Nataraja

The bronzes of the Chola period are world-famous. The bronze statues of Nataraja or dancing Siva are masterpieces.

The oldest free-standing stone sculptures of Nataraja were built by Chola queen Sembiyan Mahadevi.

It went popular and also became a symbol of royalty in ancient Tamil Nadu. This dancing Shiva became a part of royal processions and religious ceremonies and continued after that.

The characteristic of Nataraja Statues is that they represent dancing shiva and it belongs to the Chola empire of the 10th century AD. Also, it represents the lord Shiva smiling while dancing which shows the calm and energetic person he is.

The dance postures symbolize the creation, preservation, and destruction of the universe. The Chola paintings were found on the walls of Narthamalai and Tanjore temples.

Notable Features of Chola art and architecture

The Chola temple’s pyramidal multi-storeyed Vimana rises as big as seventy meters, monolithic Shikhara (An octagonal dome-shaped stupika).

Also, one could notice two huge Gopuras which are gateway towers. Also, the Nandi figure is at the corner of Shikara, Kalasa which is about 3 meters in height, and Hundreds of stucco figures decorate the vimana.

The Primary deity of Chola’s temples is Shiva, which is depicted as a huge lingam set in a two-storeyed sanctum. The wall surrounding the lingam was depicted with mythological narrative through painted murals and sculptures.

Also, some of the structures were added during the Maratha period.

Chola Paintings

Chola paintings are known for their vibrant colors, intricate details, and dynamic compositions. They typically depict religious scenes, such as stories from the Hindu epics and Puranas. Chola paintings are also known for their portraits of royalty and everyday people.

Unfortunately, very few Chola paintings have survived to the present day. This is because most Chola paintings were done on temple walls, which were often damaged or destroyed over time. However, a few Chola paintings have been discovered in caves and on other surfaces, such as wooden panels.

Chola Paintings are seen in Nartamalai. The most important Chola paintings were found in Brihadeswara temple, Tanjore. The paintings were drawn on the walls of the narrow passage that surrounds the shrine.

In the Brihadeswara temples, two layers of paintings were found. The upper layer was executed during the Nayak period in the 16th century. The Chola painting in the temple shows narration related to Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka, Shiva as Nataraja, a portrait of the patron Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar, dancing figures etc.

Chola Painting - Dancing Girls at Brihadisvara Temple Tanjore — Chola Painting – Dancing Girls at Brihadisvara Temple Tanjore Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=638103

Examples of Chola Paintings

Dancing Girl: This painting from the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur is one of the most famous Chola paintings. It depicts a young woman dancing gracefully and gracefully. The painting is known for its vibrant colours and intricate details.

Shiva as Lord of the Dance: This painting from the Brihadisvara Temple depicts Lord Shiva in his Nataraja form, the dancing form of Lord Shiva. The painting is known for its dynamic composition and its depiction of Lord Shiva’s cosmic dance.

Vishnu and Lakshmi: This painting from the Kailasanathar Temple in Kanchipuram depicts Lord Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi. The painting is known for its beautiful depiction of the divine couple.

Portrait of Raja Chola I: This painting from the Brihadisvara Temple is a portrait of Raja Chola I, the greatest Chola king. The painting is known for its realistic depiction of the king.

Important features of Chola art and architecture

Massive scale: Chola temples are typically very large and imposing structures. The Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, for example, is one of the largest temples in India, with a vimana (tower) that rises to over 200 feet in height.
Intricate carvings: Chola temples are lavishly decorated with intricate carvings. These carvings depict a wide range of subjects, including religious scenes, dancers, musicians, and animals.
Use of stone: The Cholas were masters of stone carving, and their temples were made of finely dressed granite and sandstone.
Balance and symmetry: Chola temples are characterized by their balance and symmetry. The different elements of the temple are arranged harmoniously and pleasingly.

Conclusion

The Chola art and architecture were prolific, especially their temple building. They build over a hundred important temples which are still in a good state and still more temples are active shrines. Cholas temples were bigger in scale than structures built by Pallavas, Chalukyas, Pandyas, etc.

References

Art and Architecture of Bahmani kingdom Upsc

Bahmani Kingdom Architecture

The Bahmani sultans developed an architecture called Persianate-Indo-Islamic. It was well adapted by the Sultanates of the Deccan. Kalaburagi, the first capital of the Bahmani, is the place where Jami Masjid was built in 1367. It has perhaps the Bazaar Street in the fort, which is one of the earliest of its kind in India.

The royal necropolis is called Seven Tombs or Haft Gumbad. The oldest tomb here is the tomb of ruler Mujahid Shah, the third Bahmani ruler.

Also, Mujahid’s successor, Dawood Shah, invented a new style of tomb that comprises two domed structures on a single basement. This double-chambered style tomb was copied by Firoz Shah Bahmani for his tomb, which is much lighter on the eyes.

The main architectural figures of the Bahmani are the Mahmud Gawan Madrasa, the Fort of Bidar, the Jama Masjid and the Gulbarga fort.

Bahmani rulers were buried in tombs known as the Bahmani Tombs. These tombs were designed with coloured tiles, with Quranic verses in Persian over them.

The mosques and tombs in Bidar and Gulbarga are architecturally very pleasant. Bahmani rulers built a number of forts such as Daulatabad Fort, Golconda Fort, and Raichur Fort.

Bahmani architecture is influenced by the Persian style, as the builders were from Middle Eastern countries. Chand Minar, Jama Masjid, and Mahmud Gawan Madrasa were great architectural features.

Gol Gumbzai is one of the great works of Bahmani. The dome, eight arcs, and the acoustic inside are just marvels.

The black basalt doors, arches with stucco floral work, and chajjas borne on brackets, etc., have become common features in the later architecture.

Bidar Fort

It is one of the most formidable forts in India. It is constructed by Ahmad Shah Bahamani between 1426 and 1432 AD and is the site of Purana Qila. This site is situated in the eastern part of town, where there are palaces, mosques, etc., built using trap-rocks.

The fort walls were built using stone and mortar. This fort has seven gates. On this site, the notable palaces are the Rangin Mahal, Chini Mahal, Turkash Mahal, etc.

Also, the Solah Khambh Mosque is famous. This site also marks Lal Bagh or Ruby Garden.

Takhat Mahal

It is also called the Throne Palace; it has two side pavilions with lofty arches. Takhat Mahal is a spacious hall. The structure has stately dimensions and exquisite surface decorations.

It is important to note that several Bahmani and Barid Shahi Sultans were held here.

Tarkash Mahal

It is built for the Turkish wife of the sultan. Then, the Mahal was built or extended by the Barid Shahi Sultans. This is the place where the Barid Shahi sultans kept large harems of ladies from various countries.

Rangeen Mahal

It means coloured palace. Rangeen Mahals were decorated with tiles of different colours.

Shahi Matbakh

Shahi Matbakh adjoins the Rangeen Mahal, and it is the residence of some prince or higher official. The Shahi Hamam (Royal Bath) is near the royal kitchen (Shahi Matbakh), which is close to the Lal Bagh (Red Garden).

In Lal Bagh, red flowers are grown.

Gagan Mahal

It is also called the Heavenly Palace. It was originally built by the Bahmani Sultans. Later, some alterations were made by the Baridi Shahi kings. Originally, it had two courts; the outer courts were utilised by staff and guards.

And the Inner Courts were used for the accommodation of guards. The purpose of the building was for the use of the Sultan and his harem.

Diwan-I- Am

It is a Public Audience Hall. Its structure is also called the Jali Mahal. This structure has two entrances. It is a spacious hall adorned with tile works, probably meant for ministers and other officers.

The hall is fully decorated with coloured tiles.

Solah Khambh Mosque

It was built in 1423-1424 AD by Qubli Sultani. This mosque has 16 pillars in the front. This mosque is also known as Zanana Masjid. The structure is about 90 meters long and 24 meters wide.

The interiors are built beautifully, with large spaces to get fresh air and natural light. The structure has massive columns, arches, and domes. It is one of the largest mosques in India.

Chaubara

Chaubara literally means a building facing in four directions. Its structure is a cylindrical tower of a height of 22 meters. It is situated in the middle of Bidar town and used watch towers to monitor the entire plateau.

Conclusion

This article is written for the Upsc exam for the topic “Art and Architecture of the Bahmani Kingdom“. The historical monuments constructed during the Bahmani period are an intermixture of Hindu, Persian, and Turkish craftsmanship.

Role of Tamil Nadu in Freedom Struggle Tnpsc

Role of Tamil Nadu in the Freedom Struggle

The role of Tamil Nadu in the Freedom Struggle has great importance against British colonial rule. Palayakarars of the late 18th century made various attempts to establish freedom in Tamil Country. After the defeat of Palayakarars, Indian sepoys, and officers made an uprising in Vellore Fort in 1806 that reflected the feelings of several contentments of South India.

Due to Western Education and middle-class educated Indians, the struggle took the constitutional path.

The freedom battle in Tamil Nadu was special on the grounds that from the earliest starting point. It was not just a battle for freedom from the English Crown but additionally a battle for freedom from social evil forced by the caste framework.

By the early 19th century, educated, white-collar class people started to raise their voices for public issues. These white-collar people started the Madras Native Association and Madras Mahajana Sabha.

Madras Native Association

The Madras Native Association (MNA) was one of the oldest associations formed in South India.

Formed in 1852 by Gazulu Lakshminarasu, Srinivasanar, and their associates were mostly composed of merchants.
The association’s main motive was for individual and business benefits and their primary aim was to decrease the taxes imposed on their business. Then the association also challenged the support of the Britain government to the Christian missionaries.
Also voiced the needs of the people and one of the important things done by the association was their legal battle against the government for the ill-treatment of the laborers by tax authorities.
This legal battle led to the foundation of the Torture Commission and the cancellation of the Torture Act which is the collection of tax by torturing the farmer or laborers.
The existence of the Madras Native Association ended in 1862.

Beginnings of the Nationalist Press

The first Indian Judge of the Madras High Court, T. Muthuswami was appointed in 1877 and his appointment as Judge was widely criticized by the Press in the Madras presidency region.
Thereby people came to know that the entire press was controlled by the Europeans. As a result, native people started newspapers to communicate their points of view. By this, G. Subramaniam, M. Veeraraghavachari, and several others started the newspaper named “The Hindu” in 1878.
Swadesamitran, a Tamil patriot magazine started by G. Subramaniam in 1891 and was turned into daily in 1899.
The establishment of the Hindu and Swadesamitran gave hope to other newspapers and magazines such as Indian Patriot, South India Mail, Madras Standard, Desabhimani, Vijaya, Suryodayam, and India.

Madras Mahajana Sabha

Madras Mahajana Sabha (MMS) was the earliest association in South India that had a clear nationalist aim. The founder is M. Veeraraghavachari, P.Anandacharlu, P. Rangaiah.

The demands of Madras Mahajana Sabha are:

The conduction of Civil Service Exams in India
Cancellation of Council of India in London
The cancellation of high taxes
Reducing the army expense of the British from the Indian revenue.

These demands are then taken by the Indian National Congress, as their agenda.

Moderate Phase

Madras Mahajana sabha prompted the development of an All India Association, the Indian National Congress from various parts of India went to a few gatherings before the arrangement of the congress.
The Theosophical Society in Madras, the gathering was held in December 1884 and this meeting was attended by Dadabhai Naoroji, K.T.Telang, Surendranath Banerjee, and other leaders.

Nationalists of Tamil Nadu in the Moderate stage

The early patriots accepted in constitutional ways, by exercising Public Hall meetings and debating the issues of the nation in the English language.
These views were conveyed to the administration through petitions. During the partition of Bengal, Tilak and others made mass open gatherings, and vernacular dialects to address the masses. These early leaders were known as Moderates.
Tamil Moderates are V.S.Srinivasa Sastri, P.S.Sivasamy, V.Krishnasamy, T.R. Venkatramanar, G.A.Natesan, T.M.Madhava Rao, and S.Subramaniar. The main meeting of the Indian National Congress was held in 1885 in Bombay.
Out of 72 representatives, 22 individuals were from Madras. G. Subramaniam by his compositions inspired patriotism in many. G. Subramaniam with Naoroji and Gokhale for his commitment to the comprehension of the financial abuse of India by the British.
The subsequent meeting of the Indian National Congress was held in Calcutta in 1886, with Dadabhai Naoroji. The third meeting was held at Makki’s Garden, presently known as the Thousand lights, in Madras in 1887 with Badruddin Tyabji as president.
Out of the 607, all-India representatives 362 were from Madras Administration.
Tamil Nadu was then part of the Madras Presidency which included present-day Andhra Pradesh (Coastal areas and Rayalaseema), Karnataka (Bengaluru, Bellary, South Canara), Kerala (Malabar), and even Odisha (Ganjam).

Swadeshi Movement

In 1905, Bengal was Partitioned which ignited the Swadeshi Movement and changed the path of the freedom struggle.

Many new leaders arrived and particularly a number of leaders came from Bengal, Punjab, and Maharashtra.

The Calcutta Congress session called the nationwide Swadeshi movement and asked people to boycott foreign goods and promote national education. The swadeshi movement also had its impact on Tamil Nadu.

1. Swadeshi Movement in Tamil Nadu

The important leaders of Tamilnadu are V.O.Chidambaranar, V.Chakkaraiyar, Subramania Bharati, and Surendranath Arya.

Numerous public meetings were conducted all over Tamilnadu. A number of magazines and newspapers were started to inspire Swadesi’s feelings.

Noticeable journals are India and Swadesamitran. Bipin Pal visited Madras and addressed the youth to participate in the Swadeshi Movement.

2. Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company

Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company was started by V.O. Chidambaranar at Thoothukudi. He bought two ships. VOV ship’s name is S.S.Gallia and S.S.Lavo and started transport between Thoothukudi and Colombo.

Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company went bankrupt due to double standards by the Government and strong competition from other European companies.

3. Tirunelveli Uprising

V.O.C got together with Subramania Siva in arranging the factory laborers in Thoothukudi and Tirunelveli. In 1908, he drove a strike in the European Coral Mills. It coincided with the release of Bipin Chandra Pal.

V.O.C and Subramania Siva organized public meetings to praise the arrival of Bipin and were arrested. The two chiefs were accused of rebellion and condemned to thorough detainment.

V.O.C. was given a severe sentence of two life imprisonment. The updates on the capture started revolts in Tirunelveli prompting the torching of the police headquarters, court, and municipal office.

It prompted the killing of four individuals in an open fire. V.O.C. was dealt with rigorous punishment in jail and was made to pull the oil press.

Others captured are G. Subramaniam and Ethiraj Surendranath Arya. To keep away from police imprisonment Subramania Bharati ran away to Pondicherry which was under French rule.

Bharati’s model was trailed by numerous different patriots, for example, Aurobindo Ghosh and V. V. Subramanianar. The merciless attack on Swadeshi leaders practically brought the Swadeshi Development to halt in Tamil Nadu.

4. Revolutionary Activities in Tamil Nadu

The Swadeshi movement inspired the youth. Many youths took the revolutionary path. Pondicherry provided a safe place for revolutionaries.

Many revolutionaries in Tamil Nadu were trained at India House in London and in Paris. M.P.T.Acharya, V.V.Subramanianar, and T.S.S.Rajan were famous among them.

Revolutionary literature was distributed by them in Madras through Pondicherry. Radican papers such as India, Vijaya, and Suryodayam came out of Pondicherry.

Such revolutionary papers and Bharathi poems were banned. These activities in Pondicherry intensified with the arrival of Aurobindo Ghosh and V.V.Subramanianar in 1910. These activities continued till World War-I.

5. Ashe Murder

In 1904, Nilakanta Brahmachari and others started the Bharata Matha Society, a secret society. Their objective was to kill British officials and kindle patriotism among the people.

Vanchinathan of Sengottai was influenced by the organization. Vanchinathan shot Rober WDE Ashe, Collector of Tirunelveli in Maniyachi Junction, and shot himself. These people failed to inspire people.

6. Annie Besant and the Home Rule Movement

Moderates were disappointed with the Minto-Morley reforms as they did not provide a responsible government. Despite this, congress extended its support to the British in World War.

Annie Besant, an Irish Lady, and leader of the Theosophical Society proposed the Home Rule Movement on the model of the Irish Home rule league. Starting in 1916, carried a demand for home rule all over the country.

G.S.Arundale, B.P.Wadia, and C.P.Ramaswamy assisted her. Annie Besant wrote a newspaper called New India and Commonweal. She remarked, “Better Bullock Carts and Freedom than a train deluxe with Subjection”.

Under the Press Act of 1910, Annie Besant asked to pay a hefty amount as security. Annie Besant wrote two books namely, How India Wrought for Freedom and India: A Nation and a pamphlet on self-government.

Many students joined the Home Rule classes, and formed into boy scouts and volunteer troops. Annie Besant and her followers were prohibited from making public speeches.

Annie Besant was elected the president of the congress session of 1917. Members of the Home Rule movement such as B.P.Wadia played a key role in organizing the working classes by forming trade unions.

They succeeded in improving their working conditions and made them part of the freedom struggle. The rise of Gandhi as National leader, Annie Besant, and the Home rule leagues were eclipsed.

Non-Brahmin Movement and the Challenge to Congress

Education grew rapidly during the madras presidency. There was an increase in the number of educated non-Brahmins. Political and social discussions were done by educated non-brahmins.

They raised issues such as caste discrimination, unequal opportunities in government employment, and representation in elected bodies that were dominated by brahmins. Further, Congress was fully composed of Brahmins.

(a) The South Indian Liberal Federation(SILF)

The Non-Brahmins organized political organizations. C.Natesanar a.k.a C. Natesa Mudaliar founded the Madras Dravidian Association in 1912.

In June 1916 he established the Dravidian Association Hostel for non-Brahmin students. He also played a key role in uniting two big non-brahmin leaders T.M.Nair and P.Thyagarayar.

Both of them were earlier part of congress and sidelined by congress. On 20 November 1916, a meeting was held at Public Hall in Chennai under the leadership of P.Thyagarayar, T.M. Nair, and C.Natesanar with about 39 Non-Brahmins.

SILF was founded to promote the interests of the non-Brahmins. The newspaper published by the South Indian Liberal Federation are Justice (English), Dravidian (Tamil), and Andra Prakasika (Telugu).

The South Indian Liberal Federation was later known as Justice Party after its English Daily named Justice.

(b) Demand for Reservation

The non-Brahmin manifesto was released. Reservation of jobs for non-brahmins in government service, and seats in representative bodies. Non-brahmins feared that the Home rule movement was a brahmin and might give more powers to the brahmins. It also criticized the Congress party controlled fully by brahmins.

Montagu’s announcement of political reforms of 1917 intensified political discussions in Tamil Nadu. The justice party demanded communal representation.

The Madras government was also supportive of the Justice Party. The Justice party believed that English rule was conducive to the development of the non-brahmins. The act of 1919 provided reservation of seats to non-Brahmins, a move welcomed by the Justice party and criticized by congress.

(c) Justice Ministry

Congress boycotted the elections of 1920. Find out why? The Justice party won 63 out of 98 seats in the Legislative Council. A.Subbarayalu of the Justice Party became the first Chief Minister.

After the 1923 election, Raja of Panagal of the Justice Party formed the ministry. The Justice party introduced reservations for non-brahmins in appointment in local bodies and educational institutions.

They established the Staff Selection Board which later became the Public Service Commission. They enacted the Hindu Religious Endowment Act and Madras State Aid to Industries Act.

They abolished the devadasi system. Muthulakshi Reddy proposed this bill in the 1930s. But this bill was passed during the Premiership of O.P. Ramaswamy Reddiyar called Omandur Reddy.

The abolition of the devadasi system is referred to as the Madras Devadasis (Prevention of Dedication) Act or the Tamil Nadu Devadasis Act. This act was enacted on 9 October 1947.

Periyar E.V. Ramasamy was part of the Devadasi abolition bill and suggested to pass as Private Bill rather than Public Bill. They allotted the Poramboke Land (Waster Government Lands) to the poor for housing.

Primary education to the depressed classes through fee concessions. Scholarship and mid-day meals programme for students.

Government’s Repressive Measures

Rowlatt Act

After World War-I, the British passed a draconian Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act popularly known as the Rowlatt Act. The act was named after Sir Sidney Rowlatt, who passed in 1919.

According to the Rowlatt act, anyone could be imprisoned on charges of terrorism without judicial process. Gandhi went against the Rowlatt act by the non-violence method known as the Satyagraha that he used in South Africa.

Rowlatt Satyagraha on march 18,1919 Gandhi addressed a meeting on Marina Beach. On 6 April 1919 hartal was organized to protest against the “Black Act”. Protest demonstrations were held in several parts of Tamil Nadu.

Processions from many areas of the city gathered at Marina Beach. The large gathering devoted the whole day to fasting and prayer on the marina beach.

Madras Satyagraha Sabha was formed. Rajaji, Kasturirangar, S.Satyamurti, and Geoge Joseph addressed the meeting. A separate meeting of workers was addressed by V.Kalyanasundaram a.k.a Thiru.V.Ka, B.P.Wadia and V.O.C.

The important feature of this movement was a large number of students, women and working-class people participated.

George Joseph

George Joseph, a barrister, and good speaker led from the front for the cause of the Home rule league in Madurai. Born in Chengannur, Alappuzha district, Kerala, and practiced as a lawyer.

He led Vaikom satyagraha in Kerala and championed the cause of the “criminal tribes of Tamilnadu”.

He was affectionately called “Rosaappu Durai” by the people and helped Harvey Mill workers of Madurai to set up Madurai Labour Union in 1918. The initial struggles of the union resulted in higher wages and reduced work hours.

(c) Khilafat Movement

After World War-I, the Caliph of Turkey was humiliated and all its power was taken away. To restore the Caliph the Khilafat movement was started.

In Tamil Nadu, Khilafat Day was observed on 17 April 1920, with a meeting led by Maulana Shaukat Ali. Another conference was held at Erode. Vaniyambadi was the epicentre of Khilafat agitation in Tamil Nadu.

(d) Non-Cooperation Movement

Tamil Nadu was active during the non-cooperation movements. C.Rajaji and E.V.Ramaswamy provided leadership to the non-cooperation movement in Tamil Nadu.

Rajaji worked with Yakub Hasan and founded the Madras branch of the Muslim League. Congress volunteers distribute pamphlets, maintaining order in public meetings. They played an important role in picketing liquor shops.

(e) No Tax Campaigns and the Temperance Movement

As a part of the non-cooperation movement, cultivators refused to pay taxes. The No-Tax Campaign took place in Thanjavur. Councils, schools, and courts were boycotted.

Foreign goods were boycotted. The worker announced strikes. One of the important features of the movement in Tamil Nadu is a movement against liquor that is called the Temperance Movement.

Toddy shops were picketed. The agitation by communities against the Criminal Tribes Act. In 1921, November, it was decided to organize civil disobedience.

Rajaji, E.V. Ramasamy (Periyar), and Subramania Sastri were arrested. The Visit of the Prince of Wales on 13 January 1922 was boycotted. Two were killed and many were injured by Police repression. The Non-Cooperation movement was withdrawn in 1922 after the Chari Chaura Incident which killed 22 policemen.

(f) E.V.R. and the Constructive Programme

He campaigned for the promotion of the sale of khadi and opposed the consumption of liquor. Then Periyar cut down the entire coconut grove owned by him.

Also, Periyar, played a key role in Vaikom Satyagraha, in Travancore. In those days, so-called low-caste people, even cannot walk on the road near to temple. After several leaders of Kerala were arrested, Periyar went to Kerala to make the Vaikom Satyagraha.

For leading the Vaikom Satyagraha he was imprisoned for a month. Even after their release, he was arrested again for making inspiring speeches and he was imprisoned for six months.

After their release, he was arrested again for the speeches to promote Khadi. In June 1925, the ban on the roads around the temple in Vaikom was lifted. For his contribution to Vaikom Satyagraha, he was hailed as a ‘Vaikom Hero’.

Cheranmahadevi Gurukulam Controversy

By this time EVR, dissatisfied with the Congress, felt it was promoting the interest of the Brahmin alone. Cheranmadevi Gurukulam’s controversy and opposition to communal representation with the congress led EVR to leave the congress.

For the cause of National Education, a Gurukulam was established in Cheranmadevi by V.V.Subramanianar and it received funds from the congress. But the students were discriminated against on the basis of caste.

Brahmin and Non-Brahmin students were made to dine separately and the food served too was different. The issue was brought to the notice of EVR who criticized it along with Dr P.Varadarajulu.

In the Kanchipuram Conference of Tamil Nadu Congress Committee that was held on 21 November 1925, he raised the issue of representation for non-brahmins in the legislature.

His resolution was defeated, and EVR left the conference with other non-brahmin leaders. Soon EVR left congress and started a self-respect movement.

(f) Swarajists–Justicites Rivalry

Congress was divided after the withdrawal of the non-cooperation movement. The division was between the people who want to quit the councils and people who want to continue in the council and contest for elections.

Rajaji and other Gandhian followers opposed the council’s entry. Rajaji, Kasturirangar, and M.A.Ansari advocated the boycott of the councils.

Opposition to this led to the formation of the Swaraj Party within the congress by Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru. In Tamil Nadu, the Swarajist were led by S.Srinivasanar and S.Satyamurti.

(g) Subbarayan Ministry

In the election, the Swarajists won the majority in 1926. But it refused to accept the congress policies. Instead, they supported an Independent P.Subbarayan to form the ministry.

The Swarajists did not contest in elections held in 1930. That made the justice party win easily and justice stayed in office till 1937.

(h) Simon Commission Boycott

Sir John Simon, under him a statutory commission was formed to review the Act of 1919. The disappointment was, the commission is full of white members and there were no Indians in it.

As a result, congress boycotted the commission. In Madras, the Simon Boycott Propaganda Committee was set up with S.Satyamurti as President.

There was widespread agitation against the Simon Commission. The arrival of the Simon Commission in Madras on 18 February 1929 was greeted with demonstrations and hartals, Black flags were shown against the commission.

The police force suppressed the protest. Agitation for the removal of the Neil statue in 1927, Protesters came all over the Madras Presidency and were led by S.N.Somayajulu of Tirunelveli.

Neil statue satyagraha of 1927, in madras presidency, to remove Neil Statue who was a war hero of English during the revolt of 1857. Somayajulu and Swaminatha Mudaliar were arrested, K. Kamaraj became the leader of the agitation in September 1927.

Gandhi gave support to the agitation. The statue was finally moved to Madras Museum when C. Rajaji formed the government in 1937.

Civil Disobedience Movement

(a) Towards Poorna Swaraj

In 1920, under the leadership of Gandhi, Tamil Nadu was transforming into a broad-based movement. The Madras session of the India National Congress declared complete independence as its goat in 1927.

It appointed a committee under Motilal Nehru to frame the constitutional reforms in opposition to the Simon Commission. In 1929, at the Lahore session of the Congress, Poorna Swaraj which is complete independence was adopted on 26 January 1930.

And the National Flag was hoisted by Jawaharlal Nehru on the banks of river Ravi as the declaration of independence.

(b) Salt March to Vedaranyam

The Viceroy did not accept the demands forwarded by Gandhi, he launched the Civil Disobedience Movement by setting on a salt satyagraha with a march to Dandi on 12 March 1930.

Tamil Nadu was at the forefront of the Civil disobedience movement. In madras city, foreign goods were boycotted. Rajaji let a salt satyagraha march to Vedaranyam.

The salt satyagraha started from Tiruchirappalli on 13 April 1930 and reached Vedaranya in Thanjavur district on 28 April. A special song was composed for the march by Namakkal V. Ramalinganar with the lines, “A War is ahead sans sword, sans bloodshed…Join this march.”

On reaching Vedaranyam 12 volunteers under the leadership of Rajaji broke the salt law by picking up salt. Rajaji was arrested.

T.S.S. Rajan, Rukmani Lakshmipathi, Sardar Vedarathnam, C. Swaminathar, and K. Santhanam were among the prominent leaders who participated in the Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha.

(c) Widespread Agitations in Tamil Districts

T.Prakasam and K.Nageswara Rao set up camp at Udayavanam near Madras. The police arrested them which led to a hartal in Madras.

On 27 April 1930, Police clashed with the protester, leaving three dead. The protesters who offered Salt Satyagraha in Rameswaram were arrested. Similar protests in Uvari, Anjengo, Veppalodai, Thoothukudi, and Tharuvaikulam were arrested.

Mill workers and women participated. Rukmani Lakshmipathi was the woman to pay a penalty for violating the salt laws. Bhashyam popularly known as Arya hoisted the national flag in Fort St. George on 26 January 1932.

Satyamurti picketed a shop which sells foreign goods, and distributed pamphlets. N.M.R.Subbaraman and K. Kamaraj played an important role in these protests.

Kodikatha Kumaran Martyrdom of Tirupur Kumaran

O.K.S.R.Kumaraswamy, popularly known as Tirupur Kumaran, carried the National flag and was brutally beaten by Police in Tirupur.

He fell dead carrying the National flag. This made a large number of people participate in the Civil disobedience movement from all sections.

(d) First Congress Ministry

Provincial Autonomy was introduced by the Government of India Act of 1935. The Council of ministers was made responsible to the Legislature, which administered the provincial subjects.

The Governor had the power to advise the elected government. Congress won the 1937 elections and the justice party was defeated.

Rajaji formed the first congress ministry and introduced a prohibition on an experimental basis in Salem. To compensate for the loss of revenue he introduced a sales tax.

Rajaji opened temples to the so-called “ Untouchables”. The serious efforts of T. Prakasam led to the appointment of a committee to enquire into the condition of the tenants in the Zamindari areas.

No measures were implemented to reduce indebtedness. Congress resigned the government due to pulling India into the second world war without consulting the elected congress ministries.

A temple entry programme into Madurai Meenakshi Amman was organized by Vaidyanathar, L.N.Gopalsamy, President and Secretary of Madurai Harijan Sevak Sangh respectively on 9 July 1939.

The Temple Entry Authorisation and Indemnity Act was passed in 1939 for the removal of social evils against the depressed classes.

(e) Anti-Hindi Agitation

Rajaji introduced Hindi as a compulsory language in School. It was considered as Aryan and North Indian imposition on Tamil Language and culture.

E.V.R led a massive campaign against the Hindi imposition and organized an anti-Hindi conference at Salem. The Scheduled Castes Federation and the Muslim League extended their support to anti-Hindi agitation.

Thalamuthu and Natarajan, two agitators died in prison. A rally was organized from Tiruchirappalli to Madras and more than 1200 protestors including E.V.R were arrested.

After the resignation of the congress from the ministry, the governor took over the power and removed Hindi as a compulsory subject.

Quit India Struggle

The failure of the Cripps mission made people uncomfortable. Gandhi passed the Quit India Resolution on August 8, 1942, and gave the slogan ‘Do or Die. The total congress leadership was arrested.

K. Kamaraj escaped from being arrested while returning from Bombay and then organized the underground Quit India Movement in the South.

Rajaji and Satyamurti were arrested while distributing the pamphlets. The movement was widespread in Tamilnadu and there were many incidents of violence such as the cutting of telegraph lines, stopping railway traffic, and setting fire to the post office.

A large number of strikes in Buckingham and Carnatic mills, Madras Port Trust, Madras Corporation, and the Electric Tramway. Telegraph and telephone lines were cut and public buildings were burnt at Vellore and Panapakkam.

College students also participated in the protest. The airport in Sulur was attacked and trains derailed in Coimbatore. Congress volunteers clashed with the military in Madurai.

There were several instances of police firings at Rajapalayam, Karaikudi, and Devakottai. Many young men and women also joined the INA. The Quit India Movement was suppressed with brutal force.

The Royal India Navy Mutiny, the negotiations initiated by the newly formed Labour Party Government in England gave India independence and the country was partitioned into India and Pakistan.

Vellore Mutiny (1806)

The British administration prohibited Hindu soldiers from smearing religious marks on their foreheads. Ordered the Muslims to shave their beard and trim their mustache.

This created great anger among soldiers. The soldiers were instigated by the sons of the Tipu Sultan to revolt against the British.

On 9th July 1806, One of the Tipu Sultan’s daughters was to be married in Vellore. The revolting soldiers gathered at the fort like attending a wedding.

The soldiers surrounding the fort killed most of the Europeans and unfurled the flag of Tipu over the fort. Tipu’s second son Fateh Hyder was declared the ruler. But the great British army crushed the revolt.

V.O.Chidambaram Pillai

Subramaniya Siva

Subramaniya Siva born in Vathalagundu in Dindugal District. He was a creative writer and a freedom fighter. He was arrested many times between 1908 and 1922 for his antiimperialist activities.

While serving prison he suffered from leprosy and was shifted to Salem Jail. When Siva was unable to walk due to leprosy, the British Government enacted a law for Siva, stating that leprosy patients should not travel by train.

He traveled foot through his whole body was covered with sores. Eventually died of the disease on 23 July 1925.

Subramaniya Bharathiyar

Vanchinathan

S.Satyamurti

He was born in Tirumayyam, Madras Presidency on August 19, 1887. He started practicing as a lawyer prior to joining the National Movement.

At a young age, he emerged as the foremost leader of the Indian National Congress. He was the political mentor of K.Kamaraj. Rajagopalachar nominated Satyamurti to succeed him as the President of the India National Congress in Tamil Nadu in 1930.

He was also mayor of Madras in 1939, leading a campaign to restore public education, improve water supply, etc. In 1919, Congress selected him as its representative to join the Parliamentary committee to protest the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms and the Rowlatt act.

To honor him, the Headquarters of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee was named after Satyamurti Bhavan. He participated in the Swadeshi Movement and Quit India Movement and was imprisoned several times, eventually he passed away on 28th March 1943.

Kamaraj

First Mughal emperor in India: Babur Upsc

Zahiruddin Muhammad to Babur (1526–1530)

Who was the first Mughal emperor?

The answer is Babur, the real founder of the Mughal dynasty. The race for power in Central was between Uzbeks- A Turkic ethnic group, Safavids (Shia Muslims of Iran), and Ottomans (Sunni Muslims of Turkish ethnic group).

The Ottomans forced the ruler of Samarkand, Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur, to make a political career somewhere. The central Asia people have the knowledge of India as there was business happening through the Silk route with India.

Babur is inspired by Timur who had established an empire in Delhi in 1526 which is popularly called Delhi Sultanate. Babur from the throne of Samarkand City, Uzbekistan. The throne ascended from his father.

He lost the throne and then he reclaimed it. Bahur realized he was surrounded by enemies such Safavid in Iran and Uzbeks in Central Asia decided to build an empire in India. Babur as Timurid had an interest in Punjab which was in Timur’s Possession.

Between 1519 to 1524, Babur invaded Bhera, Sialkot, and Lahore. Babur has an interest in conquering India, as the political scene in India favoured his wish. He conquered Kabul and Ghazni and crossed the Indus river to reach India and formed a small kingdom.

The political scenario in India favoured Babur. Lodi Dynasty, Delhi sultan Ibrahim Lodi decided to expand his territory, his effect frustrated Afghans and Rajputs. Babur was invited to attack India by Daulat Khan Lodi who was the enemy of Ibrahim Lodi and also Babur also from Rana Sangha ruler of Mewar and leader of Rajput Kingdoms or confederacy.

Babur marched with his forces to India, first defeating the forces of Daulat Khan Lodi at Lahore, as Daulat khan Lodi backed off in helping Babur.

First Battle of Panipat, 21 April 1526

First battle of Panipat was fought between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi. Babur defeated Ibrahim lodi after several invasions. He defeated the small army compared to lodi forces. Babur won because of strategic position and great use of artillery.

This victory gave him hopes of settling in India permanently. He then conquered Delhi and Agra. Even after the victory, he had to deal with Rajputs and Afghans.

Battle of Khanwa, 1527

Babur decided to take on Rana Sanga of Chittor, who as ruler of Mewar, had a strong influence over Rajasthan and Malwa. Babur selected Khanwa, near Agra, as a favourable site for this inevitable encounter.

The ferocious march of Rana Sanga with a formidable force strengthened by Afghan Muslims, Mahmud Lodi, brother of Ibrahim Lodi, and Hasan Khan Mewati, ruler of Mewat, confronted the forces of Babur.

With strategic positioning of forces and effective use of artillery, Babur defeated Rana Sanga’s forces.

This victory was followed by the capture of forts at Gwalior and Dholpur which further strengthened Babur’s position.

Battle of Chanderi, 1528

Then next important that ensured Babur’s power over the Malwa region was the war against Medini Rai at Chanderi. After this victory Babur turned towards the growing rebellious activities of Afgans.

The next significant battle that ensured Babur’s supremacy over the Malwa region was fought against Medini Rai at Chanderi. Following this victory Babur turned towards the growing rebellious activities of Afghans.

Battle of Ghagra, 1529

The Battle of Ghagra was the last battle Babar fought against the Afghans. Mahmud Lodi who was brother of sultan Ibrahim Los and Sultan Nusrat Shah who was son-in-law of Ibrahim Lodi, conspired against Babur.

Babar took the war against them, in Ghagra, a tributary of Ganga. Babur defeated the Afghans but died on his way from Agra to Lahore in 1530.

Estimate of Babur

The founder of the Mughals was Babur. He was a scholar of Persian and Arabic. He wrote Baburnama (Tuziuk-i-Baburi), which is considered a world classic. Babur description of India is delightful.

He found nothing admirable in Afghans who ruled India nor in the majority of people they governed. Babur’s view is described as follows: ‘The chief excellence of Hindustan is that it is a large country and has an abundance of gold and silver. Another convenience of Hindustan is that the workmen of every profession and trade are innumerable and without end.’

Babur’s dominions were now secure from Kandahār to the borders of Bengal. However, in the great area that marked the Rajput desert and the forts of Ranthambhor, Gwalior and Chanderi, there was no settled administration, as the Rajput chiefs were quarrelling among themselves.

So Babur left a difficult task for his son Humayun.

Who was the last powerful mughal ruler?

Who was the last powerful Mughal ruler?

The last powerful Mughal ruler is Aurangzeb Alamgir (“World Conqueror”) ascended the royalty in 1658 after getting rid of all the rivals for the throne, Dara Shukoh, Shuja, and Murad, in a war of succession.

He ruled for fifty years which can be divided into two equal parts. During the first 25 years, he resided in the North, mainly in Delhi, and individually occupied himself with the affairs of northern India, leaving the Deccan region in the hands of his viceroys.

In 1681, he was provoked by the rebellion of one of his sons, Prince Akbar, to go to the Deccan but he never returned to Delhi, dying frustrated at Ahmad Nagar in 1707. Aurangzeb conducted many military campaigns to extend the area of the empire and wars in the Northwest and Northeast exhausted the royal treasury (Exchequer).

The revenue from the Peasants has been raised from One third to half during his father’s tenure and Aurangzeb engaged in frequent and prolonged wars and made him tax heavily on the farmers.

Aurangzeb retained Shah Jahanabad as his empire’s capital, but after some two decades, the capital was changed to wherever Aurangzeb would set up camp during his long military campaigns.

In the north, there were three major uprisings against Aurangzeb:

The Jats (Mathura district),
The Satnamis (Haryana region)
The Sikhs

The Jat rebellion (1669), a regular thing during the rule of Previous rule of Jahangir and Shah Jahan, was crushed momentarily but they remained stubborn even after the death of Aurangzeb.

The Satnamis revolt was crushed with the help of local Hindu Zamindars. The Sikh (Punjab) rebellion erupted due to the political affairs of Ram Rai, a candidate for the position of Sikh Guru, against the obligatory Guru Tegh Bahadur.

This ended with the assassination of Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh Guru. Aurangzeb’s decision that the Jizya (poll tax) should be levied on Hindus of all kinds aroused the rulers of Rajasthan, who earlier served the Mughal empire faithfully.

The death of Jaswant Singh of Marwar brought about a succession issue. The Rajput queen Rani Hadi, wife of Raja Jaswant Singh, resented the move of Aurangzeb to install Indra Singh, a grandnephew of Jaswant Singh, a titular chief of the state.

This led to a revolt with the help of Rathor Rajputs but was effectively put down. The Rana of Mewar, Rana Raj Singh, resenting the interference of Aurangzeb in the affairs of Marwar rose in revolt and he was supported by Prince Akbar, the rebellious son of Aurangzeb.

However, the Rana could not match the Mughal forces and fought guerrilla warfare till his death in 1680. In 1681 Rana Jai Singh, the new Rana of Mewar signed a peace treaty with Aurangzeb.

Conclusion

Aurangzeb stayed long at the Deccan, which weakened the Empire. Also engaged in constant wars with Maratha, Sikhs, etc that drained the treasure.

Due to his religious policy, the Mughals lost a good relationship with the faithful Rajput, and the rise of the Marathas eventually weakened the strength of the Mughals. Following his death, later Mughals did not have any chance to sustain themselves as Aurangzeb made enemies from all sides, and the fate of the empire worsened.

Aurangzeb Deccan policy Upsc

Aurangzeb Deccan policy Upsc – Its Consequences on the Mughal Empire

Aurangzeb was ruthless against the rules in the Deccan and subdued the sultans of the Deccan. Also, he fought frequent battles against Sivaji and his policy of conquering Deccan and had the interest to bring entire south India under the control of the Mughals

The Deccan policy of Aurangzeb was motivated by the policy of containing the growing influence of the Marathas, the rebellious attitude of the Shia kingdoms of Deccan like Golkonda and Bijapur and controlling the rebellious activities of his son Akbar who had taken refuge in the Deccan.

Aurangzeb came to the Deccan in 1682 and remained in the Deccan till his death in 1707. The Adil Shahi ruler Sikandar Adil Shah of Bijapur resisted the different forces sent by Aurangzeb.

Aurangzeb first sent his son Azam Shah (1685) but to no avail. Then he sent another son, Shah Alam to capture Bijapur. Though Bijapur Sultan, a Shia Muslim, ably defended the fort, he lost in the end, because Aurangzeb himself entered the battlefield and inspired his forces to fight to the finish.

Golkonda was captured in 1687 after defeating the ruler Abul Hasan.

Aurangzeb Deccan policy Upsc — Aurangzeb Deccan policy By Abdul Hamid Lahori – Padshahnamahttp://www.history.upenn.edu/coursepages/hist188/list.html, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=17221511

Conflict with Marathas

The campaign against Maratha chieftain Shivaji was successful in the beginning. But Aurangzeb insulted Shivaji. Then Shivaji escaped from Agra and campaigned against the Mughals.

Then Prince Akbar rebelled against Aurangzeb. He received support from the Marathas and Deccan Sultanate. Then he fled to Safavid Iran.

Aurangzeb Failure in Deccan

The policy of Deccan gave a severe blow to Aurangzeb and to the Mughal empire. His attitude toward the rulers of Deccan and his religious intolerance caused massive destruction that lead to the death of thousands of his best soldiers, officers, and other top bureaucrats.

Also, it emptied the treasury of the Empire and people lost prestige to the Mughal empire. His Deccan policy was a miserable failure and his engagement in the war against Bijapur and Golkonda made the empire’s position worse.

Golconda and Bijapur were conquered by Aurangzeb’s 1686-1687 campaign.

As a result, Shia Muslim sentiment towards the Mughal empire was lost. Aurangzeb has increased his number of enemies. Although he had defeated most of them, he could not control them completely and as a result, the Mughal government exhausted all its reserves and the soldiers were starving due to endless wars and non-payment of salaries.

Aurangzeb invaded Bijapur by defeating Sikandar Adil Shah and invaded Golconda by defeating the Qutub Shahi dynasty in 1686 and 1687 respectively. This destruction of the Deccan kingdom was a political blunder by Aurangzeb, as these two Deccan dynasties were the only barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas.

By eliminating them, the Mughal dynasty faced direct attacks from the Marathas. This political blunder made by Aurangzeb is referred to as “Deccan Ulcer”. This ruined Aurangzeb and also weakened the Mughal Emperor’s image with the people.

Conclusion

Aurangzeb destroyed the Deccan kingdoms. It went on to become a political blunder for the Mughals. As the barrier between the Mughals and Marathas was now removed. As a result, there were direct clashes between Auragazeb and Maratha Chief ‘Shivaji’ took place, which exhausted the Mughal’s treasury.

Samrat Shah Jahan history Upsc

Shah Jahan History

In the tapestry of Mughal history, the name Shah Jahan resonates as a symbol of grandeur, architectural brilliance, and enduring love. The fifth emperor of the Mughal dynasty, Shah Jahan, ruled over the Indian subcontinent during the 17th century. His reign is often characterized by the construction of breathtaking monuments, most notably the iconic Taj Mahal. In this blog, we embark on a historical journey to explore the life, accomplishments, and the indelible legacy of Shah Jahan.

Early Life and Rise to Power

Shah Jahan, born Khurram on January 5, 1592, was the fifth ruler of the Mughal dynasty, known for his grand architectural projects, including the iconic Taj Mahal. His early life and rise to power were marked by a combination of military achievements, political maneuvering, and personal relationships.

Early Life:

Parentage:
- Shah Jahan was born to Emperor Jahangir (Jahangir meaning “conqueror of the world”) and Empress Nur Jahan, a powerful and influential figure in the Mughal court. His birth name, Khurram, means “joyful” or “beloved of the heart.”
Military Training:
- From a young age, Khurram displayed an affinity for military pursuits. His father, Jahangir, recognized his son’s military prowess and involved him in various military campaigns, exposing him to the intricacies of warfare.
Marriage to Mumtaz Mahal:
- One of the defining moments of Shah Jahan’s early life was his marriage to Arjumand Banu Begum, better known as Mumtaz Mahal, in 1612. Their union would prove to be a profound and enduring love story, and Mumtaz Mahal would play a crucial role in Shah Jahan’s life and reign.

Rise to Power:

Military Achievements:
- Shah Jahan’s military career played a pivotal role in his rise to power. He distinguished himself in various campaigns, including those against the Deccan Sultanates and the rebellious Rana Amar Singh. His success on the battlefield solidified his reputation as a capable military commander.
Conflict with Siblings:
- The Mughal Empire, like many other historical empires, often witnessed succession disputes among siblings. Shah Jahan found himself entangled in a power struggle with his brothers, particularly Shahryar and Khurram, as each vied for the throne.
Succession to the Throne:
- After the death of his father, Jahangir, in 1627, Shah Jahan emerged victorious in the succession struggle. He ascended to the Mughal throne in 1628, taking the regnal title Shah Jahan, which means “King of the World.”
Relationship with Empress Nur Jahan:
- While Nur Jahan, Shah Jahan’s stepmother, was a powerful and influential figure during the reign of Jahangir, her influence waned during Shah Jahan’s rule. Shah Jahan sought to establish his own authority and reduce the interference of the influential nobles, including Nur Jahan, in state affairs.

Architectural Legacy

Shah Jahan’s architectural legacy stands as a testament to the opulence, grandeur, and artistic brilliance of the Mughal Empire during the 17th century. His reign witnessed the construction of some of the most iconic structures in Indian history, showcasing the distinctive Mughal architectural style characterized by symmetry, intricacy, and a harmonious blend of Persian, Islamic, and Indian elements.

1. Taj Mahal:

Undoubtedly, the crowning jewel of Shah Jahan’s architectural legacy is the Taj Mahal, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the New Seven Wonders of the World. Commissioned as a mausoleum for his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal, who died during childbirth in 1631, the Taj Mahal is a sublime masterpiece of white marble set against the banks of the Yamuna River in Agra. Completed in 1653, the Taj Mahal is renowned for its perfect symmetry, intricate carvings, and the mesmerizing play of light on its domes and minarets.

2. Shah Jahan’s Red Fort:

Shah Jahan’s Red Fort in Delhi, known as Shahjahanabad during his reign, is another architectural marvel. Constructed between 1638 and 1648, the Red Fort served as the main residence of the Mughal emperors. The fort is an exemplary representation of Mughal architecture, with its massive red sandstone walls, intricate marble inlays, and a series of pavilions, courtyards, and halls, including the iconic Diwan-i-Khas and Diwan-i-Am.

3. Jama Masjid:

Commissioned by Shah Jahan and completed in 1656, the Jama Masjid in Delhi is one of the largest mosques in India. Constructed with red sandstone and white marble, the mosque reflects the grandeur and architectural finesse characteristic of the Mughal era. The mosque’s courtyard can accommodate thousands of worshippers, and its three large domes and two towering minarets dominate the skyline.

4. Shalimar Bagh:

Shah Jahan’s Shalimar Bagh, located in Srinagar, Kashmir, is a splendid example of Mughal garden design. Built in 1619, it features terraced levels, flowing water channels, fountains, and pavilions. The garden is not only a testament to Mughal aesthetics but also reflects the emperor’s appreciation for natural beauty.

5. Moti Masjid:

Also known as the Pearl Mosque, the Moti Masjid is a small but elegant mosque located within the premises of the Agra Fort. Commissioned by Shah Jahan, it is constructed with white marble and is characterized by its three domes and a series of slender minarets.

6. Other Architectural Contributions:

Shah Jahan’s architectural patronage extended beyond the well-known monuments. He commissioned the construction and renovation of numerous buildings, palaces, and gardens, contributing to the overall beautification and urban planning of the cities within his empire.

Economic Prosperity and Administration

Shah Jahan’s reign witnessed economic prosperity, partly attributed to efficient administration and the continuation of policies established by his grandfather, Akbar. The empire flourished both culturally and economically during this period.

Economic Policies:

Agricultural Reforms:
- Shah Jahan continued the agrarian policies introduced by Akbar, focusing on improving agricultural productivity. These policies included measures to ensure equitable distribution of land, efficient revenue collection, and the promotion of cash crops.
Trade and Commerce:
- The Mughal Empire under Shah Jahan witnessed vibrant trade and commerce. The emperor actively encouraged trade relationships with European powers, including the English and the Dutch. The port of Surat became a significant center of trade during this period.
Revenue System:
- The revenue system established by Akbar, known as the zabt system, continued during Shah Jahan’s reign. This system aimed to fix the revenue demand on agricultural produce, providing stability to the agrarian economy.
Development of Infrastructure:
- Investments in infrastructure projects, such as the construction of roads and bridges, facilitated the movement of goods and people. These projects contributed to economic development by connecting different regions within the empire.

Administrative Policies:

Centralized Administration:
- Shah Jahan maintained a centralized administrative system inherited from his predecessors. The empire was divided into provinces (subas), each governed by a governor (subedar) appointed by the emperor. This centralized system allowed for better control and coordination.
Judicial System:
- The emperor focused on maintaining a just and efficient judicial system. Qazis (judges) were appointed to administer justice based on Islamic law. The emperor himself acted as the highest court of appeal, ensuring that justice was dispensed fairly.
Military Administration:
- Shah Jahan continued to invest in a powerful military. The Mughal army was a formidable force during his reign, and the emperor undertook military campaigns to expand and consolidate the empire’s territories.
Cultural Patronage:
- While not a direct economic or administrative policy, Shah Jahan’s patronage of the arts and culture had indirect economic implications. The flourishing cultural scene contributed to the empire’s soft power, attracting artists, intellectuals, and traders from different parts of the world.

Shah Jahan’s economic and administrative policies, combined with his cultural patronage, contributed to the overall prosperity of the Mughal Empire during his rule. The stability in revenue collection, emphasis on trade, and infrastructure development laid the groundwork for economic growth. His administration maintained law and order, ensuring a degree of political stability that allowed for the flourishing of arts and culture.

Later Years and Decline

Shah Jahan’s later years were marked by political intrigue, familial conflicts, and a decline in the once-great Mughal Empire. The latter part of his reign was characterized by challenges to his authority, succession disputes among his sons, and a shift in the political landscape.

Conflict with Sons:

Succession War:
- The decline in Shah Jahan’s health and the inevitable question of succession led to a power struggle among his four sons: Dara Shikoh, Aurangzeb, Shah Shuja, and Murad Baksh. The rivalry escalated into a full-fledged war of succession.
House Arrest:
- In 1657, Shah Jahan fell seriously ill, providing an opportunity for his sons to vie for the throne. Aurangzeb emerged victorious in the subsequent Battle of Samugarh and Battle of Khajwa. Concerned about the potential challenges from his other sons, Aurangzeb put Shah Jahan under house arrest in the Agra Fort.

House Arrest and Final Years:

Life in Confinement:
- Shah Jahan spent the last years of his life in confinement within the Agra Fort. Although he lived in relative luxury, his confinement was a symbolic imprisonment, preventing him from participating in state affairs.
View of the Taj Mahal:
- From his quarters in the Agra Fort, Shah Jahan had a direct view of the Taj Mahal, the monument he had commissioned in memory of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal. Legend has it that Shah Jahan spent hours gazing at the Taj Mahal from his window, reminiscing about the past.

Death:

Death of Shah Jahan:
- Shah Jahan’s health deteriorated over time, and he passed away on January 31, 1666. He was buried beside Mumtaz Mahal in the Taj Mahal. While the monument stands as a symbol of love, their final resting place is a poignant reminder of the emperor’s enduring connection with his queen.

Legacy and Historical Perspectives:

End of an Era:
- Shah Jahan’s death marked the end of the golden age of Mughal architecture and the culmination of the era known as the “Great Mughal” period. The subsequent years witnessed a decline in the empire’s splendor and influence.
Aurangzeb’s Rule:
- Aurangzeb, who succeeded Shah Jahan, ruled with a more orthodox and conservative approach. His ascension marked a departure from the cultural and artistic extravagance of the previous Mughal rulers.
Historical Perspectives:
- Shah Jahan’s legacy is complex and multifaceted. While he is celebrated for his architectural achievements, his later years are often viewed through the lens of the decline of the Mughal Empire. The lavish spending on monuments, coupled with the succession disputes among his sons, contributed to the financial strain and weakened the empire.
Symbolic Significance:
- Shah Jahan’s life in confinement, particularly his view of the Taj Mahal, adds a layer of symbolism to his legacy. The story of the emperor spending his final years gazing at the monument he built as a symbol of love and loss has captured the imagination of poets, writers, and historians.

Conclusion

Shah Jahan’s legacy endures not only in the architectural wonders he left behind but also in the cultural and economic contributions during his rule. The Taj Mahal, in particular, stands as a poignant reminder of the emperor’s devotion and the pinnacle of Mughal artistry.

In conclusion, Shah Jahan’s reign is a captivating chapter in the annals of Indian history. His contributions to architecture, administration, and the cultural fabric of the Mughal Empire continue to captivate the imagination of historians, artists, and admirers worldwide. Shah Jahan, the emperor of love and architectural splendor, left an indelible mark that transcends the sands of time.

Shivaji and Aurangzeb relationship Upsc

Aurangzeb against Marathas

The Marathas under Shivaji were a threat to Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb sent two of his great generals Shaista Khan and Jai Singh one after the other to capture Shivaji.

Shivaji Arrest

Jai Singh captured Shivaji and took him to Delhi but Shivaji managed to escape to the Deccan. Shivaji, employing guerrilla tactics, defied the Mughal forces till his death at the age of 53 in 1680. Aurangzeb was severely tested by the Marathas till his death in 1707 as the sons of Shivaji continued the rebellion.

Death of Aurangzeb

The death of Aurangzeb in 1707 marked a watershed in Indian history as the Mughal empire virtually came to end even though the weak successors of Aurangzeb held the throne for the next 150 years.

Relationship with Sikhs

Aurangzeb nursed a grudge against the Sikhs for having supported his brother and principal rival to the throne, Dara Shukoh.

Guru Tegh Bahadur was killed at Aurangzeb’s command. In 1680 Aurangzeb sent a formidable army under his son Akbar to subdue the rebellious Rajput kings, but the emperor had not reckoned with his son’s traitorous conduct.

Conquest of Deccan

Akbar had declared himself the emperor but was compelled to flee to the Deccan, where he enlisted the help of Shivaji’s son, Sambhaji. Aurangzeb decided to take to the field himself and eventually drove his own son into exile in Persia.

Deccan Sultanates

Sambhaji was captured in 1689 and executed. The Sultanates of Bijapur and Golkonda were also reduced to utter submission. Towards the end of his reign, Aurangzeb’s empire began to disintegrate and this process was accelerated in the years after his death when “successor states” came into existence.

Breaking of Empire

The empire had become too large and unwieldy. Aurangzeb did not have enough trustworthy men at his command to manage the more far-flung parts of the empire. Many of his political appointees broke loose and declared themselves independent.

Aurangzeb’s preoccupation with affairs in the Deccan prevented him from meeting political challenges emanating from other parts of the empire. Shortly after the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire ceased to be an effective force in the political life of India.

Aurangzeb re-imposed jizya. He also issued orders that new temples should not be constructed, but the repair of old long-standing temples was permitted.

These measures were rooted not only in his religious faith but also due to political compulsions. Jizya had been levied for a long time in India. As a staunch Muslim, Aurangzeb had discontinued the practice of levying abwab, a tax levied on the lands over and above the original rent, not sanctioned by Shariah.

Likewise, the order on temples was also an older one which in practice applied to places where he had political adversaries. In areas where there was no political insubordination, Aurangzeb provided endowments to build temples.

It should be noted that during the reign of Aurangzeb the number of Hindu officials increased when compared to the reign of Shah Jahan.